起重機(jī)的歷史外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯、中英文翻譯

The History of Crane1. OverviewThe first construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbor cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first mechanical power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilized where the provision of power would be uneconomic.Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings. For a while, mini - cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Finally, we can find larger floating cranes, generally used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships. This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.2. History（1）Ancient GreeceThe crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC. The archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane. The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next two hundred years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones more practical than of fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with its tendency to ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15-20 tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favor of using several column drums. Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labor, making the crane more preferable to the Greek polis than the more labor-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria. The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems (Mech. 18, 853a32-853b13) attributed to Aristotle (384-322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then. Ancient RomeThe heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, when construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about their lifting techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius (De Architectura 10.2, 1-10) and Heron of Alexandria (Mechanica 3.2-5). There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed.The simplest Roman crane, the Trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus a mechanical advantage of 3:1, it has been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (3 pulleys x 50 kg = 150), assuming that 50 kg represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (Pentaspastos) or, in case of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (Polyspastos) and came with two, three or four masts, depending on the maximum load. The Polyspastos, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could already lift 3000 kg (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg = 3000 kg). In case the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load even doubled to 6000 kg at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison to the construction of the Egyptian Pyramids, where about 50 men were needed to move a 2.5 ton stone block up the ramp (50 kg per person), the lifting capability of the Roman Polyspastos proved to be 60 times higher (3000 kg per person). However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks than those handled by the Polyspastos indicate that the overall lifting capability of the Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for instance, the architrave blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one corner cornice block even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m. In Rome, the capital block of Trajans Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of about 34 m (see construction of Trajans Column). It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (Mechanica 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals). This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (ca. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan. Lifting such heavy weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans.Middle AgesDuring the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the Western Roman Empire. The earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240. In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Brugge in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331. Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders, hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites and harbors. Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses shaped like a ships wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over dead-spots in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123. The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded, although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius De architectura which was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities.Structure and placementThe medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier compass-arm wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced clasp-arm type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim, giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage. Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults. Thus, the crane grew and wandered with the building with the result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft. Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs.Mechanics and operationIn contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devils clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels. It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward. This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval treadwheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control. Harbor usageAccording to the present state of knowledge unknown in antiquity, stationary harbor cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages. The typical harbor crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods like see-saws, winches and yards. Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical distribution: While gantry cranes which pivoted on a central vertical axle were commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside, German sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib arm and roof rotating. Interestingly, dockside cranes were not adopted in the Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by ramps beyond the Middle Ages.Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were attached to each side of the axle and rotated together. Today, according to one survey, fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant throughout Europe.28 Beside these stationary cranes, floating cranes which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century. RenaissanceA lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was used to great effect by the Renaissance architect Domenico Fontana in 1586 to relocate the 361 t heavy Vatican obelisk in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture. Early modern ageCranes were used domestically in the 17th and 18th century. The chimney or fireplace crane was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the height was adjusted by a trammel. 4. Types of the cranesMobileMain article: Mobile craneThe most basic type of mobile crane consists of a truss or telescopic boom mounted on a mobile platform - be it on road, rail or water.FixedExchanging mobility for the ability to carry greater loads and reach greater heights due to increased stability, these types of cranes are characterized that they, or at least their main structure does not move during the period of use. However, many can still be assembled and disassembled.外文翻譯起重機(jī)的歷史1. 概況第一臺(tái)具有機(jī)械結(jié)構(gòu)的起重機(jī)是由古希臘人發(fā)明的，并且由人或者是牲畜比如驢，作為動(dòng)力源。這種起重機(jī)被用于大型建筑的建造。這種起重機(jī)后來(lái)發(fā)展成了采用人力踏板驅(qū)動(dòng)的更大型的起重機(jī)，用于提升更重的物料。中世紀(jì)時(shí)港口起重機(jī)被用來(lái)裝卸船上的貨物，有的港口起重機(jī)為求更大的起重重量和更好的穩(wěn)定性被造在了石塔里。最早的起重機(jī)是用木頭制造的，但是工業(yè)革命之后，鑄鐵和鋼材就代替了木頭用于制造起重機(jī)。盡管水磨機(jī)和風(fēng)車(chē)都可以利用自然的能源來(lái)驅(qū)動(dòng)，但是幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)，起重機(jī)的動(dòng)力源一直是人力或者是畜力。第一臺(tái)真正采用機(jī)械能量的起重機(jī)用的是蒸汽機(jī)，最早的蒸汽起重機(jī)出現(xiàn)于18到19世紀(jì)，有一些甚至到了20世紀(jì)末仍能很好地使用。雖然由于能源的供應(yīng)仍不可及，到現(xiàn)在有一些人力起重機(jī)還在使用，但是現(xiàn)代的起重機(jī)一般采用的內(nèi)燃機(jī)、電動(dòng)馬達(dá)、液壓系統(tǒng)能為起重機(jī)提供比之前大得多的提升力。 起重機(jī)的類(lèi)型多種多樣每一種都是量身定做。尺寸由最小的在車(chē)間里使用的臂式起重機(jī)到用于建造高樓的最高的塔式起重機(jī)應(yīng)有盡有。然而，小型的起重機(jī)也被用來(lái)建造摩天大樓，目的是為了在高樓中狹小的空間內(nèi)使用使建造更加方便。最后，我們來(lái)看看更加巨型的浮船式起重機(jī)，一般用來(lái)建造石油鉆探平臺(tái)和打撈沉沒(méi)的船只。這篇文章也會(huì)涉及到之前沒(méi)有提到，但是也非常常見(jiàn)的的起重機(jī)械，比如說(shuō)堆垛起重機(jī)和裝卸起重機(jī)。2. 歷史（1）古希臘時(shí)期用來(lái)提升重型貨物的其中節(jié)是古希臘人在公元前六世紀(jì)晚期發(fā)明的。考古記錄顯示最早在公元前515年提升夾具和鐵制的吊楔開(kāi)始出現(xiàn)在古希臘人石塊結(jié)構(gòu)的神殿里。由于這些是起重設(shè)備的核心裝置、也由于他們是在石塊的重心的中央或者是在離重心上一點(diǎn)距離相等的兩頭被發(fā)現(xiàn)，他們被考古學(xué)家認(rèn)為是起重機(jī)當(dāng)時(shí)就存在的確鑿證據(jù)。絞盤(pán)與滑輪的的引入導(dǎo)致了人類(lèi)之前用斜坡來(lái)向高處運(yùn)送貨物的方法被廣泛替代。在接下來(lái)的兩百年中，希臘的建筑都采用了這樣新型的提升物料的技術(shù)，它利用了一些小型的石塊來(lái)來(lái)代替大塊的石頭，這樣更具實(shí)用性。與更早先的古希臘人神殿的建筑材料的尺寸不斷變得越來(lái)越大趨勢(shì)相比較，希臘古典廟宇比如帕臺(tái)農(nóng)神廟的石塊重量都小于1520噸。而且，要把巨型的石柱豎立起來(lái)的作業(yè)古希臘人實(shí)際上更喜歡用好幾塊像鼓一樣的圓柱石塊堆疊而成。盡管確切是何時(shí)從斜坡運(yùn)輸進(jìn)入起重機(jī)提升技術(shù)時(shí)代的時(shí)間還不是很清楚。但是當(dāng)時(shí)古希臘不穩(wěn)定的社會(huì)局勢(shì)、和政治情況使得建造神殿更適合雇傭小型的、更加專(zhuān)業(yè)的建筑團(tuán)隊(duì)而不是像埃及和亞述那樣大量使用的沒(méi)有技術(shù)的勞動(dòng)力。這樣的情況使得起重機(jī)更像是希臘城邦發(fā)明的而非是采用純勞動(dòng)力斜坡運(yùn)送貨物的埃及或是亞述那樣的獨(dú)裁國(guó)家。 文學(xué)上第一次的明確的記載滑輪組的復(fù)合系統(tǒng)是出現(xiàn)在亞里士多德的機(jī)械難題中，但是組成文字可能還要稍晚一些。與此同時(shí)，用于建造希臘神廟的石塊尺寸再一次開(kāi)始趕上他們的古代前輩了，這標(biāo)志著當(dāng)時(shí)更多的久經(jīng)考驗(yàn)的的滑輪組一定在希臘建筑史上找到了它們的一席之地。（2）古羅馬時(shí)期起重機(jī)械在古代的全盛時(shí)期卻是在古羅馬帝國(guó)展開(kāi)的。當(dāng)時(shí)建筑物的數(shù)量激增，而且這些建筑都達(dá)到了巨型的尺寸。羅馬人采用了希臘人的起重機(jī)并將其發(fā)揚(yáng)光大。多虧了那些維特魯威工程師們撰寫(xiě)的相當(dāng)冗長(zhǎng)的文獻(xiàn)和亞歷山大大帝的蒼鷺的巢，我們才得以如此詳細(xì)地了解到了它們的其中技術(shù)。目前與Haterii的墓碑一起現(xiàn)存于世還有兩座公元一世紀(jì)晚期、雕刻精細(xì)的古羅馬腳踏式起重機(jī)的浮雕作品。三餅滑車(chē)是古羅馬最簡(jiǎn)單的一種起重機(jī)，它是由一個(gè)單梁吊臂、一個(gè)絞盤(pán)、一條繩子和一個(gè)三個(gè)滑輪組成的滑輪組組成的。這樣就有能夠省下3倍的力。經(jīng)計(jì)算，假設(shè)一個(gè)人用盡力氣能夠長(zhǎng)時(shí)間地提起相當(dāng)于重50千克的物體那么通過(guò)這樣的起重機(jī)械他可以提升約150千克的物體（3個(gè)滑輪X50千克150千克）。更加重型的起重機(jī)就擁有五個(gè)滑輪（五餅滑車(chē)），最大型的起重機(jī)會(huì)在兩根、三根甚至是四根桅桿上面裝上三餅和五餅的復(fù)合滑輪組（復(fù)滑車(chē)），這是由最大的負(fù)載載荷決定的。復(fù)滑車(chē)工作的時(shí)候兩邊需要4個(gè)人：兩邊各站兩個(gè)已經(jīng)可以提起重約3000千克的物體（3條繩子X(jué)5個(gè)滑輪X4個(gè)人X50千克3000千克）。如果用踏車(chē)來(lái)代替絞盤(pán)的話，最大的起重載荷可以在人工減半的情況下達(dá)到兩倍6000千克，因?yàn)樘ぼ?chē)有更大的直徑能夠提供一個(gè)大得多的力矩。這意味著，和建造埃及金字塔時(shí)50個(gè)人才能通過(guò)斜坡搬動(dòng)2.5噸的石塊（50千克每人）的情況相比，羅馬的復(fù)滑車(chē)的提升能力把工作的效率提高60倍（3000千克每人）。然而，大量現(xiàn)存的古羅馬建筑中那些石塊的重量比復(fù)滑車(chē)所能操作的負(fù)載要重得多。這表明古羅馬人全面的起重的能力要遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)任何簡(jiǎn)單的起重機(jī)。以Baalbek的Jupiter神廟為例，那些楣梁的石塊每塊都重達(dá)60噸以上，每個(gè)檐口的石塊甚至達(dá)到了100噸以上，所有這些石料都被提升到了19m的半空中。在羅馬Trajan之柱的主要石塊重達(dá)53.3噸，而這些石塊必須被提升到34m的高度。（見(jiàn)Trajian之柱）假定古羅馬的建筑師們是用兩種方法把這么巨型石塊提起來(lái)的：第一種方法是由蒼鷺之巢的暗示得來(lái)，首先一座起重塔矗立了起來(lái)，它四個(gè)桅桿以兩條平行的邊各一個(gè)的方式形成了一個(gè)方形的形狀，不像一個(gè)圍起來(lái)的塔，而是塔的中間有圓柱體。然后，大量的絞盤(pán)被放置在塔周?chē)牡孛嫔?，因?yàn)殡m然絞盤(pán)的杠桿比比踏車(chē)要低，但是絞盤(pán)可以安裝在更高的地方由更多的人來(lái)驅(qū)動(dòng)（此外還可以用牲畜）。這種大量絞盤(pán)的使用也