語言學(xué)筆記上課的筆記

1、CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION(高叔叔說這章要考 50分，所以東西有點(diǎn)多)“.LinguisticsI.IDefinition: lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.Three key words:? Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular Ianguage but Ianguage in general.? Study: investigateexamine research?

2、Scientific:observationgeneralizationhypotheses formation data collection hypotheses testing theory formulationHow to make a study "scientific"?1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsreleva nt to on e's in vestigati on and give thema n adequate expla natio n.2) Consistency: make no

3、con tradict ion betwee n parts of the total stateme nt3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice toin flue nee one' s gen eralizati on.1.2 the scope of linguistic

4、sGeneral linguistics: the study of Ian guage as a whole. This deals with the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.General linguistics can be further div

5、ided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics).1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1) Phnetics :the branch of lin guistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcripti

6、on.2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in com mun icati on.3) Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.4) Syntax sint?ksicses the rules gover ning the comb in atio n of words into se

7、ntences5) Semantics si' m?ntitks study of meaning in isolati on, statically out of con text.1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8 了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dyn amic study of meaning in con text.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to

8、 any Ian guage conn ected areas (broad sen se), to Ian guage teach ing esp to the teachi ng of foreig n or sec ond Ian guage(n arrow sen se) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of Ian guage such as educati on backgr

9、o und, econo mic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.4) Psycolinguistics:studies the correlati on betwee n lin guistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to un derlie that behavior. it aims to an swer three que

10、sti on s:1) how huma n work whe n we use Ian guage; 2)how we acquire our mother ton gue ; 3)how we percept and intern alize the in formati on we receive incom muni catio n.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study Ianguage variation and Ian guage use i

11、n relati on to the cultural patter ns and beliefs of man.6) Neurolinguistics : studies the n eurological basis of Ian guage developme nt and use in huma n bein gs.7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of Ian guage by emplo ying models and con cepts of mathematics.8) Computat

12、ional linguistics; approaches in which mathematical tech niq uesand con cepts are applied with the aid of computer mach ine. Tran slati on or automatic tran slatio n; project which teaches mach ine how to recog nize speech sounds and therefore words （speech syn thesis）1.3 important distinctions in l

13、inguistics （ 重點(diǎn) ）1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive Descriptive objective Prescriptive subjective ? If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the Ianguage people actually use , it is descriptive（描寫性）? If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say a

14、nd what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive （規(guī)定性）.Traditional_grammar is Prescriptive, while modern_linguistics is descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic （共時(shí)）vs diachronic （歷時(shí)）? The description of Ianguage at some point in time is a Synchronic study. （Periodical study）? The description of Ianguage

15、as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study. （Hisistorical study）1.3.3 Speech and WritingTwo major media of com muni cati on, speech is primary to writi ng.1.3.4 Langue （語言）and Parole （言語）? Ferdinand de Saussure （18571913）, pioneer of semiotics （符號(hào)學(xué)）,he is the father of modern linguistics.? Cour

16、se in Gen eral Lin guistics published in 1916. Saussure' s work marked the beg inning of modern lin guistics.? Langue refers to the abstract li nguistic system shared by all members of a speech com muni ty. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is

17、 abstract, not the Ianguage people actually use. ? Parole refers to the realizati on of Ian gue in actual use . It is concrete, n aturally occurri ng Ian guage eve nt.1.3.5 competence （語言能力）and performance （語言運(yùn)用）It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.? Competence r

18、efers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his Ianguage and,? Performance refers to the actual realizati on of this kno wledge in lin guistic com muni cati on,? what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why?1）Competence is comparatively stable2）Performance is h

19、aphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassme nt, or mistakes such as slips of the ton gues and unn ecessary pauses, despite a perfect kno wledge. It is a distinction between what one “ knows ” and what one “ does” .2. Language2.1 Definition of language

20、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.2 Design features of language 重點(diǎn)）Design features refers to the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from any animal system of com muni catio n.? Arbitrariness （任意性）It means there is no logical （intrin

21、sic or direct） connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning.? Productivity （創(chuàng)造性/多產(chǎn)性）Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and differe nt words can be arran ged to form differe nt senten ces.Productivity is unique to human I

22、anguage.? Duality （二元性）* Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower （sounds） and Higher （meaning）? At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meanin gless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning? At the higher level, the units of meaning can be

23、 grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme morpheme wordphraseclause sentence? Displacement （移位性）2 dimensions: Temporal 時(shí)間的 & Spatial 空間的Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,prese nt or future .?

24、Cultural transmission （文化傳遞性）Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by in sti net or in herita nce/birth.? Specialization （特化作用）Lin guistic sig nals do not no rmally serve any other type of purpose, such as breath ing or feed ing.? Interch

25、angeability/reciprocity （相互性）This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver.2.3 Functions of Language"Informational function （信息功能）:transmission of information （tell story /teaching）2）Interpersonal function （人際功能）：in teract ion betwee n

26、the addresser （writer） and addressee （reader） andtheir attitudes among each other. （personal talk）3）Performative function （施為功能）：use Ianguage to change one' s social status.4）Emotive function （感情功能）:change the emotional status of audience for or against some one or something.5）Phatic function （寒

27、暄功能）:mai nta in a comfortable relati on ship betwee n people without i nvolvi ng any factual content （nice day/ good morning ）6）Recreational function （娛樂功能） ：use Ianguage for sheer joy7）Meta-lingual function （元語言功能）：use Ian guage to talk about Ian guage itself.CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY（木有講 ）CHAPTER 3 MORP

28、HOLOGY（ 形態(tài)學(xué)）? What is word?Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.? Three aspects of words:1）A physically definable unit: Phono logical & orthographic2）The common factor underlying a set of forms .3）A grammatica

29、l unit? Classification of words:1）Variable and invariable words（有時(shí)態(tài)變化的詞和沒有變化的詞）2）Lexical words（實(shí)詞）and grammatical （function, form） words（ 虛詞）3）Open-class words （開放性詞）and closed-class words （圭寸閉性詞）? Word formation:（最重要的兩種）1） Compounding（復(fù)合詞）2） Derivation（派生詞）3. What is Morphology?Morphology: the stud

30、y of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the compositi on of words.3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology:1）inflectional morphology 屈折形態(tài)學(xué)2）derivational morphology 詞匯形態(tài)學(xué)3.2 Morpheme詞位，語素 （形位）3.2.1 Defin iti on of morpheme? Morpheme:, Smallest me

31、aningful components of words.3.2.2 Allomorphs 詞位變體The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs （詞位變體）.A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning.6.3 Types of M

32、orphemes6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由詞位（語素）? A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.Free morphemes fall into two_categories: content words （ope n-class words） & fun ctio n words （closed-class words）6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏著詞位（語素）? Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly

33、but have to be comb ined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.? Bound morphemes include two types: roots （詞根）and affixes （詞綴）? Affixes are of two types: inflectional（屈折詞綴）and derivational（派生詞綴）1）Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as num

34、ber, tense, degree, and case.2）Derivati onal affixes are added to an exist ing form to create a word.5.1 The definition of semantics? Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in Ianguage.The theme of sema ntics is meaning. Lan guage must have meaning and meaning is part of Ian gu

35、age.A sentence is con sidered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically.5.2 Approaches to meaning5.2.1 Meaning as naming? The meaning of an expression is what it refers to （or denotes）, stands for, or names.also called referential （or denotational） theory, or nam

36、ing theory.5.2.2 Meaning as concept? Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour? The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a comb in ati on of both on particula

37、r occasi ons of uttera nce,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory.5.2.4 Meaning as context? The mea ning is found in the con text with in which a particular expressi on is uttered.Two_kinds_of_context_are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context.5.2.5 Meaning as truth cond

38、itions? The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “ circumstances” are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,S is true if and only if P5.2.6 Meaning as useIt asserts that the mean

39、ing of an expressi on is just the use to which it is put in the Ian guage,also called use theory.5.3 Word meaning5.3.1 Sense and reference? Sense意義）relates to the complex system of relati on ships that hold betwee n the lin guistic eleme nts themselves （mostly words）, it is concerned with in trali n

40、guistic relati ons.? Reference （所指）deals with the relati on ship betwee n the lin guistic eleme nts, words, senten ces, etc., and thenon-li nguistic world of experie nee.5.3.2 Seven types of meaning （記得到那七種意義就可以了概念不用背）According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be c

41、lassified into seven types: Conceptual meaning （概念意義）? The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.5.322 Connotative meaning （內(nèi)涵意義）? Conno tative meaning is the com muni cative value that a word or a comb in ati on of words has by virtue of what refers to, o

42、ver and above its purely con ceptual content.Difference betwee n conno tative meaning and con ceptual meaning? Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.? In additi on, conno tative meaning is in determ in ate and ope n-en ded in a sense in which con ceptual meaning is not. S

43、ocial meaning （社會(huì)意義）? Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utteranee.5.324 Affective meaning （情感意義）? Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language

44、reflects the feelings of a speaker. Reflective meaning （聯(lián)想意義）? Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our resp onse to ano ther sen se.5.326 Collocative meaning （搭配意義）? Collocative meaning is composed of t

45、he associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumsta nces.5.327 Thematic meaning （主題意義）? Thematic meaning is what is com muni cated by the way in which a speaker or writer orga ni zes the message, in terms of orderi ng, focus, and emphasis.5.3.3 Semant

46、ic relations between words （記名字就可以了 那兩個(gè)有 differences 的要注意）? Homonymy（同音異義）： words having different meaning have the same form.Words are identical in sound => homophones（同音異形異義字 ）Words are identical in form => homographes（同形異義字 ）Words are identical in sound and form => homonyms（同形同音異義字 ）? Po

47、lysemy （詞多義）：one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension.Difference between polysemy and HomonymyThe distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings（polysemic）, the n there will be a sin gle en try, with a nu mbered l

48、ist of the differe nt meanings of the word. If thetwo words are treated as homony ms, they will typically have two separate en tries.? Synonymy （近義詞）：the sense relation of “sameness of meaning".? Antonymy （反義詞）:refers to oppositemessof meaning.? Hyponymy （下義關(guān)系）:the relati on ship where the mea

49、ning of one word is in cluded in the mea ning of ano ther.Hyponymy: X is a kind of Yeg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,? Meronymy （部分與整體）：the sema ntic relati on ship which obta ins betwee n “ parts" and “ wholes "body.Meronymy: X is a part of Yeg:Head is a part of body.5.4 Sentence meaningP

50、redication （句子）consist of Arugement （變?cè)?amp;Predicates （謂語）consist of Features （語義特征）5.5 Semantic relations between sentences名 字要記到，最好曉得例子）? Entailment（蘊(yùn)含關(guān)系）? Presupposition （預(yù)設(shè)關(guān)系）? Synonymy （同義關(guān)系）? Inconsistency （不一致關(guān)系）? Implicature （暗含關(guān)系）0K）.6 Three Theoretical Approach （了解第一個(gè)就可以了，其他的兩個(gè)曉得名字就.6.1

51、Componential analysis （成分分析）? Componential analysis claims that all lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic components or sema ntic features which may be uni versal.? The problems: It is not easy to show relations of antonymy or oppositeness of meaning.5.6.2 Semantic Field Theory? A sem

52、antic field is a group of lexemes.（ 詞位）5.6.3 Cognitive Semantics （認(rèn)知語義學(xué)）? It identifies meaning with conceptualization-the structure and processes which are part of mental experienee.CHAPTER 6 PRAGMATICS6.1 The definition of pragmatics? Pragmatics can be defined as the study of Ianguage in use.6.2 T

53、he scope of pragmatics ? Micropragmatics （微觀語用學(xué)）The study of Ian guage use in smaller con texts. Phe nomena such as reference （指稱），deixis （指示），anaphora （回指） and presupposition （預(yù)設(shè)）are the topics in this field.? In pragmatics, reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker or writer uses Iangu

54、age to enable a hearer or reader to ide ntify someth ing.? In semantics, reference is often assumed that the words we use to indentify things are in some direct relati on ship to those thin gs.? Macropragmatics （宏觀語用學(xué)）? Metapragmatics （元語用學(xué)）6.3 Pragmatic theories6.3.1 Speech act theory （言語行為理論）（曉得名字

55、，記到一個(gè)例子就可以了）? Speech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austin , which proposed that Ianguage is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “ do things” , to perform acts.A. locutionary act （言中行為） :the utteranee of a sentence with determinate sense and refereneeB. Illocutionary

56、 act （言外行為）：the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtueof the conventional force associated with it.C. Perlocutionary act （言后行為）：the bringing about of effects on the audienee by means of uttering thesentence, such effects being special to the circumsta nces.僅僅是描

57、述天氣好天氣那么好，我們逃課嘛去逛街嘛 我們沒有去上課，去逛街去了e.g. The weather is fine.言中行為 言外行為 言后行為6.3.2 Searl's classification of illocutionary acts （塞爾對(duì)言外行為的分類） （記名字和類型）? Represe ntatives （闡述類）:stateme nts of fact, assert ion s, con clusi ons, and descripti ons? Directives （指令類）：They are comma nds, orders, requests, sug

58、gesti ons? Commissives （承諾類）：They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges.? Expressives （表達(dá)類）：They are apologizing， thanking， congratulating.? Declarati ons （宣告類）:The speaker has to have a special in stitutioa nl role, in specific con text, in order to perform a declarati on appropriately.6.3.3 Indirect speech act （間接言語行為）?三種基本句子形式及其對(duì)應(yīng)功能：Declarative（陳述句）=> statementInterrogative （疑問