認知心理學一般知識組織

1、1張亞旭nThe storage, integration, and organization of information in memorynOrganized informationnPart of a system or network of structured information3Where Are They and How Are They Organized?n動物n水果n蔬菜n人造物體n6Semantic Feature-Comparison ModelnSmith, Shoben, & Rips, 1974nConcepts are represented in

2、 memory as a set of semantic featuresnDefining features (essential components)nCharacteristic featuresn句子核證 (sentence verification)n狗是一種動物。n蛇是一種動物。7WZWn真夠嗆，有知識的人這樣的東西早就用上了。往上一點，往下一點。（水里的還是天上飛的）天上飛的。（是鳥嗎）不是。（是坦克嗎）很可能。（是軍艦嗎）不象，這是往上推的那個8LWZn鋤鋤樹用的n下雨使的那個，燈罩，雨罩吧9Network ModelnKnowledge is represented in

3、memory as independent units connected in a network10Network Model:Spreading Activation Theory, Collins & Loftus, 1975n節(jié)點(nodes)與聯(lián)結(links)11Network Model:ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought, Anderson, 1976, 1983, 1985)nPropositional networksnSusan gave a white cat to Maria, who is the president of t

4、he club.nSusan gave a cat to Maria.nThe cat was white.nMaria is the president of the club.n每個命題可以用一個節(jié)點來表征，命題網(wǎng)絡則代表了各個命題之間的重要關系。命題中的每一個概念，也都可以用一個網(wǎng)絡來表征12原型途徑Prototype Approach, Rosch, 1973nThe robbers had many weapons.nThe robbers had many guns.nThe robbers had many bricks.13Cognitive Neuroscience Mode

5、lnKnowledge is represented in the organization of neural networksnPDP (Parallel Distributed Network)nKnowledge is in the connections between unitsnThe patterns (objects) themselves are not stored; what is stored is the connection strength between units, which allows these patterns to be recreated15T

6、he Organization of Knowledge: Revealed by Semantic Memory Disorders1920范疇特異的語義損傷Category-Specific Semantic ImpairmentsnWarrington & Shallice, 1984n4名曾患單純皰疹性腦炎的病人n同無生命物體相比，病人產(chǎn)生/理解有生命物體名稱，更加困難n病人JBR雖然只能識別或命名48個有生命物體中的2個，但能正確地描述和命名48個無生命物體中的45個Warrington, E.K., & Shallice, T. (1984). Category s

7、pecific semantic impairment. Brain, 107, 829-854Mahon & Caramazza, 2009Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2009). Concepts and categories: A cognitive neuro-psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 27-5122n絕大多數(shù)發(fā)表的個案，有生命物體損傷更為嚴重（Capitani et al., 2003）n動物、水果、蔬菜、人造物體Capitani, E.,

8、Laiacona, M., Mahon, B.Z., & Caramazza, A. (2003). What are the facts of semantic category-specific deficits? A critical review of the clinical evidence. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20 (3/4/5/6), 213261Caramazza, A., & Mahon, B. Z. (2003). The organization of conceptual knowledge: the evidenc

9、e from category-specific semantic deficits. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(8), 354-36123混淆因素的結果？n名稱頻率n項目熟悉度n視覺復雜度n可想象力24至少不能完全歸于混淆因素n偶爾的個案，相對于有生命物體來說，在無生命的或人造的物體上，表現(xiàn)出更大的困難n使用名稱頻率、熟悉度、視覺復雜度和可想象力等方面嚴格匹配的刺激，仍然發(fā)現(xiàn)范疇特異性損傷現(xiàn)象n回歸分析，發(fā)現(xiàn)有無生命這一語義范疇變量，影響病人的任務成績25Domain-specific hypothesis(Caramazza & Shelton

10、, 1998)n認為人腦中語義知識按分類學范疇（如有無生命）來組織n它假設，生物進化使得人類發(fā)展了從知覺和概念兩方面，區(qū)分有無生命物種的特殊機制，從而導致人腦中這些知識按范疇來組織n動物、水果、蔬菜、人造物體n因為不同范疇的知識存儲在大腦的不同區(qū)域，所以，特定腦區(qū)的損傷，將造成存儲在該腦區(qū)的特定范疇的知識，出現(xiàn)選擇性的缺陷Caramazza, A., & Shelton, J.R. (1998). Domain specific knowledge systems in the brain: the animate-inanimate distinction. Journal of C

11、ognitive Neuroscience, 10, 1-34.26領域特異性假設：神經(jīng)心理學證據(jù)n大多數(shù)有生命物體知識選擇性受損病人，左側顳葉受損，或者在單純皰疹性腦炎康復之后，右側顳葉受損。而人造物體知識選擇性受損病人，典型的受損部位是額頂區(qū)n不過，也有一些有生命物體知識選擇性受損病人，額葉和頂葉下部受損，或者在經(jīng)歷腦外傷之后大腦廣泛受損。此外，也有一些人造物體知識選擇性受損病人，顳葉受損n總的看，有生命范疇的特異性損傷，通常同顳葉受損相聯(lián)系，有時和額葉、頂葉相聯(lián)系。而無生命范疇的特異性損傷，通常同顳、頂和背側額葉的損傷相聯(lián)系27領域特異性假設：腦成像證據(jù)28領域特異性假設：評價n對范疇特

12、異性損傷現(xiàn)象的解釋，簡捷明了n難以解釋廣泛性腦損傷病人所表現(xiàn)出的范疇特異性損傷n經(jīng)歷腦外傷之后大腦廣泛受損，能夠導致有生命物體知識的范疇特異性損傷n阿爾茲海默病 (Alzheimers Disease) 病人也能產(chǎn)生范疇特異性損傷，而這類病人的病變通常是彌散性的，并不局限于某個特定的腦區(qū)29Visual similarity & crowding of visual representationsHumphreys & Forde, 2001; Tranel, Logan, Frank, & Damasio, 1997n不是用有無生命這樣的二分法來解釋范疇特異性損傷，而

13、是強調(diào)視覺信息與有生命物體識別之間的關系n有/ 無生命物體之間，在把范疇的一個成員同另一個成員區(qū)分開，所要求的視覺加工的程度和細節(jié)上，有重要區(qū)別30n同人造物體相比，動物、水果和蔬菜，有著驚人的范疇內(nèi)的結構相似性。因此，這些物體的識別，對前語義的結構描述系統(tǒng)要求較高n較高的范疇內(nèi)的結構相似性，容易造成“視覺擁擠”，使得不同成員之間難以區(qū)分n這種觀點實際上隱含地認為，沒必要假設兩個語義記憶系統(tǒng)，單一的語義記憶系統(tǒng)，完全能夠解釋腦損傷病人身上所出現(xiàn)的范疇特異性損傷31特征途徑n第三種觀點可稱之為特征途徑（attribute approach）n迄今為止，該理論已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)了n簡單的通道特異性假設 n相

14、互作用的通道特異性假設 n特征相關32Domain-specific hypothesis or sensory/functional theory (Warrington & McCarthy 1983, 1987; Warrington & Shallice 1984)n語義知識按照不同的感覺運動通道（如視覺或知覺語義知識、功能或聯(lián)想語義知識）來組織n特定語義特征對知識獲得和描述來說，具有不同的權重Warrington EK, McCarthy RA. 1983. Category specific access dysphasia. Brain 106:85978Warr

15、ington EK, McCarthy RA. 1987. Categories of knowledge: further fractionations and an attempted integration. Brain 110:127396Warrington EK, Shallice T. 1984. Category specific semantic impairment. Brain 107:8295433n對有生命物體來說，同功能或聯(lián)想特征（做什么用、在哪里用、什么時候用）相比，知覺特征（一個物體看起來、聽起來或感覺起來怎么樣）有更大的權重n因此，在有生命物體范疇內(nèi)，概念（如

16、“老虎”和“豹子”）的區(qū)分和加工更多地依賴于它們的知覺特征34n對人造物體來說，同知覺特征相比，功能特征有更大的權重n因此，在人造物體范疇內(nèi)，概念的區(qū)分和加工更多地依賴于它們的功能特征35n語義記憶由兩個子系統(tǒng)構成，即知覺特征子系統(tǒng)和功能特征子系統(tǒng)n有生命物體或人造物體兩個不同范疇的特異性損傷，分別是由知覺和功能這樣兩個子系統(tǒng)分別受損造成的n這種途徑既能解釋大多數(shù)有生命物體范疇出現(xiàn)特異性損傷的個案，也能解釋偶爾發(fā)現(xiàn)的無生命物體范疇選擇性受損的個案36Evidence for modality-specific hypothesisn計算機模擬 (Farah & McClelland,

17、1991)n選擇性損傷知覺或功能特征，確實能夠產(chǎn)生范疇特異性損傷n一些有生命物體范疇出現(xiàn)特異性損傷的病人，同功能特征任務相比，完成知覺特征任務，更為困難。這些病人甚至在辨別人造物體（如不同的轎車）時也有困難，只要這些物體視覺上容易混淆Farah M, & McClelland J. 1991. A computational model of semantic memory impairment: modality specificity and emergent category specificity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Gen

18、eral, 120, 339-35737Martin et al., 1995nfMRI研究，要求被試想象一個物體的知覺屬性或功能屬性n結果發(fā)現(xiàn)，知覺條件使腹側顳葉活動增強，而功能條件使左側顳葉中后部活動增強Evidence against the modality-specific hypothesis(Mahon & Caramazza, 2009)differential impairments for visual/perceptual knowledgecan be associated with (if anything) a disproportionate impair

19、ment for nonliving things compared toliving thingsEvidence against the modality-specific hypothesis(Mahon & Caramazza, 2009)40簡單的通道特異性假設：評價n同按分類學范疇組織知識相比，用通道特異性的語義表征來組織知識，似乎更經(jīng)濟n不能說明范疇特異性知識損傷中的一種現(xiàn)象，即對有生命物體來說，知覺和非知覺的知識都受到損傷41相互作用的通道特異性假設n這種觀點在承認知識按照不同的感覺運動通道組織的同時，認為知識表征是分布式的和相互作用的n它假設，客體表征的每一個部分都為

20、另一個部分提供額外的激活。因此，一個部分的受損可能影響激活其它部分的能力n對于有一個優(yōu)勢表征通道的知識范疇來說，任何一個通道信息的提取，都可能要求優(yōu)勢通道信息的提取42相互作用的通道特異性假設：腦成像證據(jù)nThompson-Schill et al., 1999nfMRI 技術n有無生命兩種物體的信息提取與左側梭狀回的激活n左側梭狀回參與視覺信息提取過程，甚至是缺乏外顯視覺刺激時，也是如此n產(chǎn)生顏色詞和心理表象可激活該腦區(qū)n按照相互作用的通道特異性假設，即使是在提取有生命物體的非視覺信息時，也會出現(xiàn)左側梭狀回的活動Thompson-Schill SL, Aguirre GK, DEsposit

21、o M, Farah MJ. 1999. A neural basis for category and modality specificity of semantic knowledge. Neuropsychologia, 37, 671-67643Mummery et al., 1998nPETn使用了三種相似性判斷任務n就物體的典型顏色（視覺特征）進行判斷n就物體所處的典型空間位置（聯(lián)想特征）進行判斷n就詞中所包含的音節(jié)的數(shù)目進行判斷n實驗材料n有生命物體、人造物體44結果n兩種范疇（即有無生命）和兩種特征（即知覺特征和聯(lián)想特征），盡管都激活了左半球語義系統(tǒng)，但仍然引起了某些區(qū)別性的

22、激活，尤其是不同類型的特征n典型空間位置判斷條件下，左側顳枕頂交界顯示出增強的活動n顏色判斷激活了左側靠前的顳皮層中部和尾狀核n有生命與無生命兩種范疇之間，所激活的腦區(qū)差異較小n在詞所激活的分布式概念系統(tǒng)中，神經(jīng)上的區(qū)別主要與特征類型有關45Different types of features are differentially correlated across different semantic categoriesn有無生命兩種物體之間，視覺與功能/聯(lián)想兩種特征之間的關系不同n有生命物體視覺和功能/聯(lián)想特征之間沒什么聯(lián)系n而無生命物體則不然n這種觀點能夠解釋為什么有生命物體更容易選

23、擇性地受損46Tyler & Moss, 2001nLiving things have more shared features, whereas nonliving things have more distinctive featuresnThe shared features of living things are highly correlated (has eyes/can see), whereas for nonliving things, distinctive features are highly correlated (used for spearing/ha

24、s tines)Tyler LK, Moss HE. 2001. Towards a distributed account of conceptual knowledge. Trends in Cognitive Science, 5, 244-25247Tyler LK, Moss HE. 2001. Towards a distributed account of conceptual knowledge. Trends in Cognitive Science, 5, 244-25248Tyler & Moss, 2001nIf distinctive features are

25、 critical for identification, and if greater correlation confers resilience to damage, then an interaction between the severity of overall impairment and the direction of category-specific semantic deficit is predictednMild levels of impairments should produce disproportionate impairments for living

26、 things compared to nonliving thingsnAt more severe levels of impairments, the distinctive features of nonliving things will be lost and a disproportionate impairment for this category will be observedTyler LK, Moss HE. 2001. Towards a distributed account of conceptual knowledge. Trends in Cognitive

27、 Science, 5, 244-25249But an opposite prediction can also be predicted.n有生命物體內(nèi)部，特征與特征之間具有很強的相關。例如，有毛皮的也有胡須n對于有生命物體來說，少量的損傷（少量聯(lián)結的丟失），通常不會影響一個物體的識別，因為特征之間很強的相關會起到一種保護的作用。然而，足夠量的損傷，將導致一些特征的丟失，這會引起有生命物體范疇內(nèi)許多成員Devlin J, Gonnerman L, Andersen E, Seidenberg M. 1998. Category-specific semantic deficits in f

28、ocal and widespread brain damage: a computational account. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 77-9450n然而，對于無生命物體來說，通常，一些特征對于特定的項目來說，恰好是關鍵的，但是與其它特征之間并沒有較高的相關n因此，這些特征的神經(jīng)病理學損傷，將影響特定項目上的作業(yè)。這樣，同有生命物體范疇不同，在無生命物體范疇內(nèi)，成員的損傷具有 的性質Devlin J, Gonnerman L, Andersen E, Seidenberg M. 1998. Category-specific sem

29、antic deficits in focal and widespread brain damage: a computational account. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 77-94Caramazza, A., & Mahon, B.Z. (2003). The organization of conceptual knowledge: the evidence from category-specific semantic deficits. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 354-360

30、52Very recent development of these theoriesnEvidence from functional neuroimaging of the human brain indicates that information about of an object-such as what it looks like, how it moves, and how it is used-is stored in sensory and motor systems active when that information was acquirednAs a result

31、, object concepts belonging to different categories like animals and tools are represented in partially distinct, sensory- and motor propertybased neural networksnThis suggests that object concepts are not explicitly represented, but rather emerge from weighted activity within property-based brain r

32、egionsnHowever, some property-based regions seem to show a categorical organization, thus providing evidence consistent with category-based, domain-specific formulations as wellMartin, A. (2007). The representation of object concepts in the brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 25-4553Distributed

33、Domain-Specific Hypothesis (Mahon & Caramazza, 2009)nThe first order principle of organization is nWithin any given domain of knowledge, there will be functional and neural specialization according to of knowledgeMahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2009). Concepts and categories: A cognitive neuropsychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 27-515455One of Future DirectionsnAre different domains of knowledge represented differently in males and females?nSome researchers have highlighted the fact that patients w