西方文化第二個問題

1、Question 2:Choose one representative character from German classical philosophers and make a brief remark on his contribution to the later social or cultural development.Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant (22 April 1724 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figu

2、re of modern philosophy. He argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to have a major influence in contemporary thought, especially the fields of metaphysics（形而上學）（形而上學）, epistemology（認識論）（認識論）, ethics, political phi

3、losophy, and aesthetics（美學）（美學）. Critique of Pure Reason純粹理性批判純粹理性批判 Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals Critique of Practical Reason實踐理性批判實踐理性批判 Critique of Judgment判斷力批判判斷力批判 Religion within the Bounds of Bare

4、Reason The Metaphysics of Morals Major worksThe Critique of Pure ReasonKant defines his theory of perception（知覺）（知覺） in his influential 1781 work The Critique of Pure Reason, which has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and epistemology in modern philosophy. Kant maintain

5、s that ourunderstanding of the external world had its foundations not merely in experience, but in both experience and a priori concepts, thus offering a non-empiricist（非經驗主義者）（非經驗主義者） critique of rationalist（理性主義者）（理性主義者） philosophy, which is what he and others referred to as his Copernican revolut

6、ion.純粹理性批判純粹理性批判的哲學要義的哲學要義首先，康德在首先，康德在純粹理性批判純粹理性批判的第一版序之的第一版序之中，闡明了對理性進行批判的必要性首先在于中，闡明了對理性進行批判的必要性首先在于確定一般形而上學是可能還是不可能，以及規(guī)確定一般形而上學是可能還是不可能，以及規(guī)定源流、范圍和界限。但是康德于第二版序之定源流、范圍和界限。但是康德于第二版序之中，反而不是著重于進行理性批判的條件，而中，反而不是著重于進行理性批判的條件，而是改變了知識與對象的關系：是改變了知識與對象的關系：“不是知識依照不是知識依照對象，而是對象依照知識對象，而是對象依照知識”，這一新概念，導，這一新概念，導

7、致康德發(fā)動了哲學界中的致康德發(fā)動了哲學界中的“哥白尼式革命哥白尼式革命”。The Critique of Practical Reason is the second of Immanuel Kants three critiques, first published in 1788. It follows on from Kants Critique of Pure Reason and deals with his moral philosophy.The second Critique exercised a decisive influence over the subsequent（

8、先前的）（先前的） development of the field of ethics and moral philosophy, beginning with Johann Gottlieb Fichtes Doctrine of Science and becoming, during the 20th century, the principal reference point for deontological（道義論的（道義論的） moral philosophy.實踐理性批判的哲學要義實踐理性批判的哲學要義倫理學方面，康德否定意志受外因支配的說法倫理學方面，康德否定意志受外因支配

9、的說法，而是認為意志為自己立法，人類辨別是非的，而是認為意志為自己立法，人類辨別是非的能力是與生俱來的，而不是從后天獲得能力是與生俱來的，而不是從后天獲得,他他認為認為真正的道德行為是純粹基于義務而做的行為，真正的道德行為是純粹基于義務而做的行為，而為實現某一個個人功利目的而做事情就不能而為實現某一個個人功利目的而做事情就不能被認為是道德的行為。因此，一個行為是否符被認為是道德的行為。因此，一個行為是否符合道德規(guī)范并不取決于行為的后果，而是采取合道德規(guī)范并不取決于行為的后果，而是采取該行為的動機。該行為的動機。康德還認為，只有當我們康德還認為，只有當我們遵守道德法則時，我們才遵守道德法則時，我

10、們才是自由的，因為我們遵守是自由的，因為我們遵守的是我們自己制定的道德的是我們自己制定的道德準則，而如果只是因為自準則，而如果只是因為自己想做而做，則沒有自由己想做而做，則沒有自由可言，因為你就成為各種可言，因為你就成為各種事物的奴隸。事物的奴隸。The Critique of Judgment , or in the new Cambridge translation Critique of the Power of Judgment, also known as the third critique, is a 1790 philosophical work by Immanuel Kan

11、t. In it, Kant lays the foundations for modern aesthetics.Kants influence on Western thought has been profound. He accomplished a paradigm（范例）（范例） shift: very little philosophy is now carried out in the style of pre-Kantian philosophy. This shift consists in several closely related innovations that

12、have become axiomatic（公理的）（公理的）, in philosophy itself and in the social sciences and humanities generally: Kants Copernican revolutionthat placed the role of the human subject or knower at the center of inquiry into our knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they are i

13、ndependently of us or of how they are for us; His invention of critical philosophy, that is of the notion of being able to discover and systematically explore possible inherent limits to our ability to know through philosophical reasoning; His creation of the concept of conditions of possibility, as

14、 in his notion of the conditions of possible experience that is that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, we must first understand these conditions; His theory that objective experience is actively con

15、stituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind; His notion（概念）（概念） of moral autonomy as central to humanity His assertion（主張）（主張） of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as meansKants influence has extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences, as in the sociology of Max Weber, the psychology of Jean Piaget, and the linguistics of Noam Chomsky. Kants work on mathematics and synthetic（綜合的）（綜合的） a priori（先前的）（先前的） knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist Albert Einstein as a