外文翻譯建設(shè)項(xiàng)目管理方法的比較

1、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）外文翻譯題目建設(shè)項(xiàng)目管理方法的比較專(zhuān)業(yè)工程管理(工程造價(jià)管理)EB班級(jí) 09級(jí)2班學(xué)生蒲成然指導(dǎo)教師郭小宏重慶交通大學(xué)2013 年6 月建設(shè)項(xiàng)目管理方法的比較作者：李百毅1,鄭 敏2, 李百戰(zhàn)2, AUSTIN S3, THORPE T3（1. 西南交通大學(xué)建筑學(xué)院，地址：中國(guó)成都 郵編：610031； 2. 重慶大學(xué)城市建設(shè)與環(huán)境學(xué)院，地址：中國(guó)重慶 400030；3. 拉夫堡大學(xué)土木與建筑工程部門(mén)，地址：英國(guó)萊斯特郡 郵編：LE11 3TU。）【摘要】：人們敏銳地意識(shí)到建筑業(yè)需要改善其管理過(guò)程。目前，施工管理方面有四個(gè)主要的思想流派。這個(gè)論文說(shuō)明了最近的研究成果,其主要任務(wù)

2、是比較這些方法。重點(diǎn)將放在這些問(wèn)題上：這個(gè)學(xué)派的理論依據(jù)是什么？把計(jì)劃放在什么位置？在施工管理項(xiàng)目中每一種思想流派的方法或建議是什么？通過(guò)對(duì)每種方法在今天高度復(fù)雜的建設(shè)項(xiàng)目管理中的運(yùn)用能力進(jìn)行一次深入討論，然后給出建議?！娟P(guān)鍵詞】：建設(shè)；項(xiàng)目管理；方法1.介紹在一個(gè)占主導(dǎo)地位的主題文獻(xiàn)中說(shuō)道，從整體上看建筑行業(yè)是收效甚微的有著低而不可靠的利潤(rùn)率，許多項(xiàng)目就完全交付，預(yù)算和質(zhì)量的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)而言是不可預(yù)知的, 1-2。 從20世紀(jì)90年代開(kāi)始，在世界范圍內(nèi)，人們領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的各種運(yùn)動(dòng)，采取的各種措施以及實(shí)行的方案都力求改變并改善建筑業(yè)的性能。其中包括英國(guó)的“建筑業(yè)的反思”3，英美兩國(guó)的“精益建造”4-5，新加坡

3、的“21世紀(jì)建筑”6，和香港的“構(gòu)造卓越”7。在這些運(yùn)動(dòng)之后，建筑業(yè)開(kāi)始采用創(chuàng)新型的工作方式，其中的一部分在近20年廣泛應(yīng)用于工程施工與制造業(yè)領(lǐng)域，包括精益生產(chǎn)，標(biāo)桿管理以及供應(yīng)鏈管理8。 有效的項(xiàng)目管理是建設(shè)工程成功的關(guān)鍵已普遍為人們所信奉9-10。之前的研究已經(jīng)表明有效地建設(shè)計(jì)劃可以顯著地提高項(xiàng)目的完成幾率，更準(zhǔn)時(shí)11，更安全12和更合理的預(yù)算13。在幾千年前我們就發(fā)現(xiàn)人們運(yùn)用大量的技術(shù)來(lái)管理他們的項(xiàng)目，如埃及人建造他們的金字塔，羅馬人建造他們的道路，中國(guó)人建造長(zhǎng)城，但管理學(xué)科卻是相對(duì)較新，現(xiàn)代項(xiàng)目管理的起源可以追溯到20世紀(jì)50年代晚期，那時(shí)關(guān)鍵路徑法和計(jì)劃評(píng)審技術(shù)剛開(kāi)始產(chǎn)生于大型國(guó)防和

4、參展合同。建筑業(yè)是“首先是采用項(xiàng)目管理的思想”14，也貢獻(xiàn)了大量重要的金融方面的，有較強(qiáng)專(zhuān)業(yè)性的資源以促進(jìn)項(xiàng)目管理的發(fā)展15。當(dāng)前，施工管理中主要有四種學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)。這些觀點(diǎn)將在下面進(jìn)行討論。討論的關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題則主要有：此種學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)的理論依據(jù)是什么？計(jì)劃的地位是什么？在項(xiàng)目工程管理中應(yīng)用了哪些技術(shù)？2.項(xiàng)目管理知識(shí)體系這類(lèi)管理有一段相當(dāng)“長(zhǎng)”的歷史，其演變的由以下因素影響：1,現(xiàn)代管理理論（如組織設(shè)計(jì)和團(tuán)隊(duì)建設(shè)）；2基于計(jì)算機(jī)的規(guī)劃技術(shù)（如關(guān)鍵路徑法和計(jì)劃評(píng)審技術(shù)）。有些研究中提到這類(lèi)管理通常因其歷史而稱(chēng)其“傳統(tǒng)項(xiàng)目管理辦法”16.今天，這種方法被大量用于在項(xiàng)目管理協(xié)會(huì)(PMI)的項(xiàng)目管理知識(shí)體系(P

5、MBOK)，一些研究因此也認(rèn)為這種風(fēng)格的管理是“PM理論/方法”17. 作為這種方法的管理理論依據(jù)，KOSKELA et al18將這種PM理論模式劃分成為了管理理論和項(xiàng)目理論。關(guān)于管理理論，他們指出了PM理論模式是基于三個(gè)理論：（1）詳細(xì)規(guī)劃是在實(shí)現(xiàn)結(jié)構(gòu)化和控制原計(jì)劃在實(shí)施中的任何偏差之中進(jìn)行管理規(guī)劃19。（2）假設(shè)計(jì)劃任務(wù)能在任務(wù)開(kāi)始時(shí)被傳達(dá)給執(zhí)行著的調(diào)度模型；（3）恒溫器模型，假設(shè)執(zhí)行有一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，執(zhí)行情況能在輸出端檢測(cè)，進(jìn)程很容易就可以被控制中心糾正，以達(dá)到標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。關(guān)于項(xiàng)目理論，他們指出傳統(tǒng)的項(xiàng)目管理方法基本適用于圖1所示的變換模型，該觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為生產(chǎn)就是輸入到輸出的轉(zhuǎn)換，生產(chǎn)管理就是將總的轉(zhuǎn)

6、換分解為初等轉(zhuǎn)換和任務(wù)表從而減少輸入成本并改善操作效率。產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)過(guò)程原料，勞動(dòng)力，機(jī)器分過(guò)程A分過(guò)程B圖1轉(zhuǎn)換觀念20至于規(guī)劃在此管理方法中的地位，規(guī)劃是五個(gè)項(xiàng)目管理過(guò)程中的一部分，并且這五個(gè)步驟組成了一個(gè)封閉的環(huán)。這個(gè)方法采用了“規(guī)劃-實(shí)施-檢查-行動(dòng) 循環(huán)”的概念。根據(jù)建筑管理中的PM管理模式，與“規(guī)劃”一致的規(guī)劃過(guò)程引出一個(gè)由執(zhí)行過(guò)程執(zhí)行的，和“實(shí)施”一致的執(zhí)行計(jì)劃，然后監(jiān)管和控制過(guò)程與“檢查-行動(dòng)”部分一致，并得出更多的計(jì)劃21。KOSKELA et al22并不贊同這種“類(lèi)規(guī)劃型管理”的項(xiàng)目規(guī)劃和控制，他還指出PM管理法認(rèn)為管理過(guò)程與組織結(jié)果有強(qiáng)烈的因果關(guān)系。在假設(shè)將計(jì)劃轉(zhuǎn)化為行動(dòng)是

7、一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的過(guò)程的情況下，規(guī)劃生產(chǎn)和行動(dòng)有本質(zhì)上的關(guān)聯(lián)。他們聲明“雖然，從計(jì)劃到實(shí)施的轉(zhuǎn)換只有在資源充足并且行動(dòng)之間的互相依賴(lài)性低的情況下才有可能”。同樣的，LAUFER23 還聲明傳統(tǒng)的項(xiàng)目管理方法相對(duì)于簡(jiǎn)單的沒(méi)有較高不確定性的項(xiàng)目來(lái)說(shuō)是一個(gè)有效地工具，而在管理如今時(shí)刻處于變化的環(huán)境中的復(fù)雜型項(xiàng)目來(lái)說(shuō)就稍顯不足了。為了實(shí)現(xiàn)項(xiàng)目管理，PM管理方法中的關(guān)鍵路線法和工作結(jié)構(gòu)分解被認(rèn)為是項(xiàng)目管理的專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)，也證明了“適用于項(xiàng)目管理的知識(shí)基本只適用與項(xiàng)目管理（關(guān)鍵路線法和工作結(jié)構(gòu)分解）”。24,43.精益建造該方法首先由KOSKELA4 提出，之后得到幾個(gè)出版物的認(rèn)同25-28。精益建造起源于對(duì)過(guò)去20

8、年的制造業(yè)以及服務(wù)業(yè)中的發(fā)展成就的觀察。人們相信這些發(fā)展都是因?yàn)橐环N新的生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)，并產(chǎn)生了“精益生產(chǎn)29”的概念。KOSKELA和HUOVILA認(rèn)為建筑業(yè)是“一種場(chǎng)所的生產(chǎn)，一種臨時(shí)的多重組織”，并嘗試著將精益生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)應(yīng)用于建筑業(yè)30.因此，精益建造的理論根源就是精益生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)，但是之后KOAKWLA提出了將生產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)換理論、生產(chǎn)流程理論和價(jià)值理論整合在一起的TFV模型，聲稱(chēng)“TFV理論很大程度上解釋了建筑業(yè)相關(guān)的起源問(wèn)題因此，生產(chǎn)中的TFV理論應(yīng)該應(yīng)用于建筑業(yè)”31.表1中總結(jié)了精益建造的相關(guān)理論。表1 項(xiàng)目管理的理論依據(jù)31 理論科目 相關(guān)理論 項(xiàng)目 生產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)換、生產(chǎn)流程和價(jià)值 計(jì)劃 計(jì)劃管理 組

9、織管理管理 執(zhí)行 經(jīng)典信息論 語(yǔ)言/行為透視圖 控制 恒溫器模型 系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)Ｐ陀?guó)建筑業(yè)在1997年采用了精益建造，并得到了具有廣泛影響力的“伊根報(bào)告3”的強(qiáng)烈支持。為了實(shí)現(xiàn)項(xiàng)目管理，像末位計(jì)劃員，附屬結(jié)構(gòu)矩陣，工作結(jié)構(gòu)，DePlan，供應(yīng)鏈管理的技術(shù)都應(yīng)用于工程項(xiàng)目管理，以作為精益生產(chǎn)配送系統(tǒng)的一部分。32精益建設(shè)承認(rèn)在施工過(guò)程中建設(shè)項(xiàng)目的供應(yīng)鏈的依賴(lài)和變化，同時(shí)認(rèn)同在建設(shè)過(guò)程中產(chǎn)品的不確定性和過(guò)程的不確定性,因此說(shuō)明了精益建設(shè)可以積極地管理這些產(chǎn)品和過(guò)程的不確定性33。但是，Green批判應(yīng)用精益生產(chǎn)哲學(xué)的施工人員明顯忽略了一個(gè)重要的觀點(diǎn)，精益生產(chǎn)體系需要相當(dāng)大的人力成本。34同時(shí)，WIN

10、CH 專(zhuān)注于精益建設(shè)的理論依據(jù)并指出TFV理論的一些限制，例如：（1）過(guò)于強(qiáng)調(diào)“硬”管理（即強(qiáng)烈關(guān)注物理處理的材料作為一個(gè)工程問(wèn)題）并忽略了“軟”管理（即缺乏對(duì)組織概念的分析）；（2）缺乏考慮風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和不確定性的影響;（3）價(jià)值觀念的單一。35至于此方法中計(jì)劃的作用，WINCH指出精益建設(shè)理論家已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)了管理型計(jì)劃和組織型計(jì)劃的重要區(qū)別。36精益建設(shè)提倡管理型計(jì)劃和組織型計(jì)劃在建設(shè)計(jì)劃中的結(jié)合使用。18然而，在與18名英國(guó)實(shí)踐規(guī)劃人員的訪談中，WINCH和KELSEY發(fā)現(xiàn)“相比于參加團(tuán)隊(duì)管理的計(jì)劃中他們更傾向于提出管理計(jì)劃來(lái)支持工程管理團(tuán)隊(duì)的組織管理”。364.在項(xiàng)目中將建設(shè)當(dāng)作生產(chǎn)的理論這個(gè)學(xué)術(shù)

11、觀點(diǎn)在WINCH所著的項(xiàng)目管理：信息處理方法一書(shū)中提到，并被多個(gè)出版物認(rèn)同。35-37這個(gè)方法認(rèn)為建設(shè)項(xiàng)目管理是“一個(gè)全面的學(xué)科”，而不是“一些分離的專(zhuān)業(yè)領(lǐng)域的部分集合”。Winch指出“建設(shè)項(xiàng)目管理就是一個(gè)信息問(wèn)題”，“信息管理中的根本問(wèn)題是不確定性，換句話說(shuō)缺少在指定時(shí)間中做出決定所需要的信息”15。 至于此方法的理論依據(jù)，就是 “管理本質(zhì)上就是組織創(chuàng)新保證一個(gè)人或者一個(gè)小型團(tuán)隊(duì)有效地為客戶完成項(xiàng)目任務(wù)”35，KOSKELA 和 BALLARD 指出這個(gè)方法主要有兩個(gè)特征：（1）認(rèn)為項(xiàng)目就是組織行為；（2）認(rèn)為項(xiàng)目就是客戶于項(xiàng)目參與者的交易，包含四個(gè)理論依據(jù)：交易成本經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)，組織行為即信息

12、處理系統(tǒng)，項(xiàng)目即減少不確定性和構(gòu)造方法的組織17。 關(guān)于計(jì)劃在此方法中的作用，此方法認(rèn)為計(jì)劃即半管理，運(yùn)作學(xué)科，而不是策略學(xué)科。Winch指出在英國(guó)的施工管理中“計(jì)劃就是隨后行動(dòng)框架的建設(shè)，并提出計(jì)劃以指導(dǎo)管理者按照組織管理計(jì)劃實(shí)施”36。此方法指出了計(jì)劃更多的交互進(jìn)程（即設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程和計(jì)劃過(guò)程）和計(jì)劃更多線性進(jìn)程（即現(xiàn)場(chǎng)任務(wù)執(zhí)行）的不同需求。此學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)清楚的表明，提高工程項(xiàng)目管理的規(guī)劃性能需要關(guān)注的是“執(zhí)行期中的不確定性，使計(jì)劃變得更困難執(zhí)行期變長(zhǎng)”15。為了實(shí)現(xiàn)項(xiàng)目管理，此方法要求不確定性的問(wèn)題最好能被末位計(jì)劃者和關(guān)鍵線路確定。此方法認(rèn)為末位計(jì)劃者和關(guān)鍵線路應(yīng)高度互補(bǔ)，并建議兩者結(jié)合來(lái)處理工程

13、項(xiàng)目管理中的戰(zhàn)略戰(zhàn)術(shù)問(wèn)題。5.同步管理 這種方法是首先介紹了，“同步管理:優(yōu)秀的基本工程項(xiàng)目的關(guān)鍵所在”,通過(guò)LAUFER et al14,在他書(shū)中提到,“同步管理:動(dòng)態(tài)環(huán)境中的管理項(xiàng)目“23。 同步管理的發(fā)展是起源于特別的觀察“熟練的項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理能夠在更少的時(shí)間在不犧牲成本和質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)或離開(kāi)客戶和用戶不滿意的條件下完成復(fù)雜的和不確定的基本工程項(xiàng)目”。系統(tǒng)研究后，LAUFER et al得出結(jié)論,“主項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理開(kāi)發(fā)新的風(fēng)格的同步管理,他們不斷地編排爭(zhēng)先的要求”14。他指出,同步管理意味著“規(guī)劃系統(tǒng),使早期的(但不是過(guò)早)適當(dāng)?shù)臎Q策,涉及各方早,導(dǎo)致他們作為團(tuán)隊(duì),操作一流的通訊,用簡(jiǎn)單的操作生產(chǎn),執(zhí)行項(xiàng)

14、目的平行的早期階段 （在適當(dāng)?shù)陌秧?xiàng)目分解后),監(jiān)測(cè)項(xiàng)目績(jī)效和環(huán)境,并且明智地調(diào)節(jié)項(xiàng)目的執(zhí)行一應(yīng)對(duì)產(chǎn)生的突發(fā)事件一個(gè)優(yōu)秀而快速的充滿挑戰(zhàn)的項(xiàng)目”。23 這種方法強(qiáng)調(diào)了理解和管理的不確定性的項(xiàng)目管理的重要性。這組不確定性分為兩類(lèi):結(jié)束不確定性(要做的),并且意味著不確定性(應(yīng)該被完成的),并建議用兩個(gè)步驟來(lái)應(yīng)對(duì)不確定性：（1）相互依賴(lài)的任務(wù)因?yàn)楦卟淮_定性而受到隔離困擾。（2）如果分離是不可能的,管理界面相互依賴(lài)的任務(wù),或有選擇性的采用冗余資源去吸收不確定性。 至于在此方法中的規(guī)劃的位置,這種方法采用了“活動(dòng)周期”的概念,但不建議系統(tǒng)、綜合規(guī)劃和系統(tǒng)監(jiān)控。6.討論 它清楚地表明,所有這些學(xué)術(shù)思想已經(jīng)

15、確認(rèn)他們的理論依據(jù)作為建筑管理風(fēng)格，并且在他們的管理系統(tǒng)中表明了其位置。主要學(xué)術(shù)思想觀點(diǎn)計(jì)劃作為建筑工程管理學(xué)科的核心競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。特別是,PM方法體現(xiàn)了“管理規(guī)劃”的概念。同時(shí)管理方法認(rèn)為規(guī)劃作為三個(gè)核心主題之一(即，規(guī)劃、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、綜合和系統(tǒng))。 對(duì)于不確定性,PM方法適合直接進(jìn)入確定性的世界,它認(rèn)為不確定性,如果僅僅可以輔以緩沖。同時(shí),其他的學(xué)?；ㄙM(fèi)大量的努力探索不確定性,以及提供一些建議如何處理不確定性。特別是WINCH15建議，建筑工程管理的目的是為了主導(dǎo)不確定性。同時(shí)，KOSKELA et al39 認(rèn)為“在理想情況下,可以在所有的信息需求下做出每個(gè)決定,沒(méi)有任何不確定性17在實(shí)踐中有并發(fā)癥

16、。決策可以因?yàn)樽约涸斐慑e(cuò)誤的順序從而導(dǎo)致不確定性”。同時(shí)管理方法提倡及時(shí)決策以適應(yīng)不確定性;隔離任務(wù)受到很高的不確定性,和相互依賴(lài)的任務(wù)盡可能的解耦,如果分離是不可能的,吸收利用冗余資源的不確定性,或管理界面選擇性之間相互依賴(lài)的任務(wù)。 可以這樣說(shuō),在討論采用建筑工程管理理論,重要的是要了解建設(shè)。首先一個(gè)建設(shè)項(xiàng)目是作為復(fù)雜性質(zhì)(如大小的項(xiàng)目,技術(shù)復(fù)雜性;合同安排使用和范圍的客戶顧問(wèn)承包商關(guān)系)被廣泛接受。建筑行業(yè)也具有不確定性。總之,作者建議:（1）建設(shè)項(xiàng)目都是獨(dú)一無(wú)二的,有著明顯目的一次性努力；（2）資源用在每個(gè)項(xiàng)目都有一個(gè)獨(dú)特的配置,因此每個(gè)項(xiàng)目都不同于其他項(xiàng)目;（3）一個(gè)項(xiàng)目的環(huán)境總是發(fā)生

17、著不同的、不斷的變化。從哲學(xué)上考慮,所有實(shí)踐活動(dòng)使課程表中增加了實(shí)用型,在某種意義上,所有的實(shí)用的行動(dòng)是基于一些理論或知識(shí),不論從業(yè)者是否意識(shí)到理論指導(dǎo)著他們的行動(dòng)38 。因此作者認(rèn)為：（1）建設(shè)工程在本質(zhì)上是復(fù)雜的和不確定性的,而不確定性隨著項(xiàng)目的進(jìn)展過(guò)程降低。（2）在實(shí)踐中一些不確定性是由于錯(cuò)誤的順序,因此,不確定性很大一部分存在于今天的施工過(guò)程，所有可以?xún)?yōu)化決策管理的秩序,特別是進(jìn)一步跟蹤和管理；（3）管理不確定性的有效途徑是及時(shí)調(diào)整決策;隔離任務(wù)受到很高的不確定性,和相互依賴(lài)的任務(wù)盡可能的解耦,如果分離是不可能的,吸收利用冗余資源的不確定性,或管理界面選擇性之間相互依賴(lài)的任務(wù)。參考文獻(xiàn)

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29、iversity of Singapore, 2001: 185198.22 KOSKELA L, BALLARD G, TANHUANPAA V. Towards lean design managementC/Proceedings of the 5th International Group for Lean Construction. Gold Coast: 1997: 289296.23 LAUFER A. Simultaneous management: managing projects in a dynamic environmentM. New York: American

30、Management Association Press, 1997.24 CHOO H J. Distributed planning and coordination to support lean constructionD. California: Engineering-Civil and Environmental Engineering, the University of California, 2003.25 TOMMELEIN I D. Models of lean construction processes: example of pipe-spool material

31、s managementC/ Proceedings of ASCE onstruction Congress 97. Minneapolis: ASCE Institution, 1997:9784.出處：中南工業(yè)大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào) (2009) 16(s1): 100104DOI: 10.1007/s1177100901904Comparison of project management approaches in constructionLI Bai-yi(李百毅)1, ZHENG Min(鄭 敏)2, LI Bai-zhan(李百戰(zhàn))2, AUSTIN S3, THORPE T3(1. Fac

32、ulty of Architecture, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031 China;2. Faculty of Urban Construction and Environment, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China3. Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK)Abstract: The construction in

33、dustry is acutely aware of the need to improve its management process. Currently, construction management is facing four major schools of thoughts. This paper reports the recent study results, the aim of which was to compare these approaches. The focus will be on the questions: What is the theory ro

34、ot for this school of thoughts? What is the position of planning? What are the techniques used or recommended by each of these schools of thoughts in managing construction projects? Recommendations are then given through a deep discussion of the capability of each approach in managing todays highly

35、complex construction project.Key words: construction; project management; approaches1 IntroductionThere is a dominant theme in the literature that the construction industry as a whole is under-achieving, has a low and unreliable rate of profitability and many projects are unpredictable in terms of d

36、elivery, budget and standards of quality12. Since 1990s, many movements, initiatives and programmes around the world have sought to change and improve the performance of the construction industry. These include the Rethinking Construction campaign in UK3, “Lean Construction” movement in USA and UK45

37、, the “Construction 21” programme in Singapore6, and the Construct for Excellence initiative in Hong Kong7. Following these movements, the construction industry has begun to adopt innovative working practices, some of which were widely diffused in the engineering and manufacturing fields in the past

38、 two decades, including lean production, benchmarking and supply chain management (SCM)8. It is a widely held belief that effective project management is essential to the success of completion of a construction project910. Previous research has demonstrated that effective construction planning can s

39、ignificantly increase the chances of completion of a project on time11, safely12 and within budget13. We can find considerable skills used by ancient man to manage their projects, which happened thousands years ago, when ancient Egyptians built their Pyramids, when Romans built their road and when a

40、ncient Chinese built the Great Wall, but the discipline of management is relatively new, and the origins of modern project management can be traced to later 1950s when CPM and PERT techniques emerged in large defense and space contracts. The construction industry was “among the first to adopt the co

41、ncepts of project management”14, and dedicated substantial financial and professional resources to develop it further15. Currently, construction management is facing four major schools of thoughts. They will be reviewed in the following sections. The focus will be on the questions: What is the theor

42、y root for this school of thoughts? What is the position of planning? What are the techniques used or recommended by each of these schools of thoughts in managing construction projects?2 Project management body of knowledgeThis style of management has a “l(fā)ong” history, and its evolution has been clo

43、sely related to: (1) in modern management theory (e.g. organisation design and team building); and (2) the evolution of computer-based planning techniques (i.e. CPM, PERT). Because of its “l(fā)ong” history, some researches often refer this style of management as “traditional project management approach

44、”16. Today, this approach is largely represented in the Project Management Institutes (PMI) Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), some researches therefore also refer this style of management as “PM theory/approach”17. As the theory root of this style of management, KOSKELA et al18 divided t

45、he theories of PM style into the theories of management and the theories of project. In regard to the theories of management, they pointed out that PM style is based on three theories: (1) management-as-planning where detailed planning is undertaken before structured implementation and control back

46、against the original plan of any deviations during implementation19; (2) the dispatching model that assumes that planned tasks can be executed by a notification of the start of the task to the executor; (3) the thermostat model that assumes that there is a standard of performance, performance can be

47、 measured at the output, and the process can be easily corrected by the control available so that the standard can be reached. In regard to the theory of project, they pointed out that the traditional project management approach generally adopts the transformation model as shown in Fig.1, which view

48、s production as a transformation of inputs to outputs, production management is to decompose the total transformation into elementary transformations and tasks in order to minimize the cost of inputs and improve the efficiencies of the operation20.Fig.1 Transformation concept20As to the position of

49、planning in this management approach, it states that planning is one of five project management processes and these five processes together form a closed loop. This approach adopts the concept ofthe plan-do-check-act cycle. According to the PM style of construction management, the planning process c

50、orresponding to the component of “plan” develops a plan that is executed by execution process that corresponds to the component of “do”, and the monitoring and controlling process corresponding to the components of “check and act” lead to further plans21.KOSKELA et al22 critiqued this “management-as

51、planning” style of project planning and control, and pointed out that the PM approach views a strong causal connection between the actions of management and outcomes of the organization. By assuming that translating a plan into action is a simple process, it takes plan production to be essentially s

52、ynonymous with action. They stated that “however, translating from plans to action is only possible if resources are actually available and interdependence between activities low”. Similarly, LAUFER23 stated that the traditional project management approach is an effective tool to manage simpler proj

53、ects which were devoid of high levels of uncertainty, but may be insufficient for managing more complex projects within todays more dynamic environment. For achieving the management of projects, the PM approach specifically identifies the Critical Path Method (CPM) and the Work Breakdown Structure (

54、WBS) as project management-specific knowledge, and stated that “many of the knowledge needed to manage projects is unique or nearly unique to project management (critical path analysis and work breakdown structure)”24, 4.3 Lean constructionThis approach has been first described by KOSKELA4 and follo

55、wed by several publications2528. The starting point of the development of lean construction is the observation of great improvement achieved in manufacturing and service industry during last two decades. It was widely held that those improvements would owe to a new production philosophy, which leads

56、 to “l(fā)ean production”29. KOSKELA and HUOVILA viewed construction as “one-of-a-kind nature of projects, site production, and temporary multi-organization”, and therefore attempted to apply lean production philosophy to construction30. Therefore, the original theory root of lean construction was the “l(fā)ean roduction” philosophy, but latter KOSKELA developed a transformation-flow-value model (TFV) that integrates the transformation concept, flow concept and value generation concept, and stated that “the TFV theory largely explains th