戴煒棟_新編簡明語言學(xué)教程文檔版

1、Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguage.語百學(xué)是對(duì)語百進(jìn)行的科學(xué)研究。Generallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.普通語言學(xué)是對(duì)語言從整體上進(jìn)行的研究themajorbranchesoflinguistics:語言學(xué)內(nèi)部主要分支Phonetics:thestudyofthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.（語首學(xué)）對(duì)語言交流中語首的研究Phonologythestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningin

2、communication.（音位學(xué)）如何組合在一起并在交流中形傳達(dá)意義.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformword幽法學(xué)、形態(tài)學(xué)）如何排列以及組合起來構(gòu)成詞語Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentence的法學(xué)）如何在組成語法上可接受的句子Semantics（語義學(xué)）thestudyofmeaninginabstraction百是用來傳達(dá)意義的°Pragmatics（語用學(xué)）th

3、estudyofmeaningincontextofus洲來研究上下文的意義跨學(xué)科分支Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.社會(huì)語百學(xué)是語百和社會(huì)之間關(guān)系的研究Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.心理語百學(xué)是語百與心靈的關(guān)系的研先Appliedlinguisticsisthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.應(yīng)用語百學(xué)是外國和第一語百教

4、學(xué)的研先Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語百學(xué)中一些基本區(qū)分1. DescriptiveorPrescriptiveAlinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人們對(duì)語言的實(shí)際運(yùn)用，規(guī)定性是在為語言“正確和規(guī)范的”使用確立規(guī)則。2. SynchronicandDiachronicThedescriptio

5、nofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy。共時(shí)性對(duì)語言在歷史的某一時(shí)間點(diǎn)的描述，歷時(shí)性對(duì)語言隨著時(shí)間的變化而變化的描述3. SpeechandWriting.4. LangueandParoleThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisti

6、csystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（實(shí)際的）language,orrealizationof1angue.瑞士語言學(xué)家索緒爾于20實(shí)際早期提出，語言是一個(gè)話語社團(tuán)所有成員共有的抽象的語言系統(tǒng)，言語是語言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中的實(shí)現(xiàn)。5. CompetenceandandPerformanceCompetenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealiza

7、tionofthisknowledgeinutterances（發(fā)聲）.語言能力定為理想的語言使用者關(guān)于語言規(guī)則方面的知識(shí)，語言運(yùn)用在語言交流中的具體實(shí)現(xiàn)。6Modernlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar現(xiàn)代語百學(xué)與傳統(tǒng)語法Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.語百學(xué)是描述性的而傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定。Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.現(xiàn)代語百學(xué)豕認(rèn)為口頭語是

8、最基本的，而不是書面語。Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.現(xiàn)在語言學(xué)不同于傳統(tǒng)語法還在于它不強(qiáng)行將語言放進(jìn)一個(gè)拉丁語為基礎(chǔ)的框架內(nèi)Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.語言是有任意性，用于人類交流的語音標(biāo)志系統(tǒng)。語言的本質(zhì)特征1 Languageisasystem,i.e,elementsoflanguageareco

9、mbinedaccordingtocertainrules.語言是一個(gè)系統(tǒng)，即語言的元素相結(jié)合，按照一定的規(guī)則2 Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.語言符號(hào)和符號(hào)所代表的事物之間沒有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系，從這個(gè)意義上說語言是任意的。3 Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.語百是有尸，因?yàn)樗姓Z百的主要媒介者B是尸首語言是人類特有

10、的,4 Languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.它與其他生物的交際系統(tǒng)不同Designfeaturesoflanguage語言的結(jié)構(gòu)，識(shí)別特征Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.識(shí)別的特征指人類語言區(qū)別于任何動(dòng)物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征1arbitrariness-

11、Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconventionbetweenmeaningandsounds.任意性-意味意義和語言之間的沒有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系2productivityorCreativity-languageisproductivityorcreativityinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.能產(chǎn)性-語言是能產(chǎn)的或具有創(chuàng)造性的，它使得者可以建構(gòu)或和解釋的新的符號(hào)3duality-languageissystem,whichconsistsoftwos

12、etsofstructures.雙重性-語百系統(tǒng)，它由兩種結(jié)構(gòu)組成套thelowerorthebasiclevel-soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowordsthehigherlevel-wordswhichare移位性-語言能夠指meaningful.4Displacement-Languagecanbeusetorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker遠(yuǎn)離說話人所在場合的情境5Culturaltransmissionwhilehu

13、mancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.文化傳承性-而人類的語百能力具有遺傳的基礎(chǔ)，任何語百系統(tǒng)的細(xì)節(jié)都要罪傳教和學(xué)習(xí)。Chapter2Phoneticsandphonology語音學(xué)是對(duì)語言端nguagPhoneticsthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurint

14、heworld介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語言世界中所有的語音Threebranchesofphonetics語首學(xué)二個(gè)分支Articulatorya'tikjuleit?riphonetics-發(fā)首語首學(xué)(歷史最悠久)Auditory.'?:dit?riphonetics-聽覺語首學(xué)Acoustic?'ku:stikphonetics-聲學(xué)語首學(xué)threeimportantcavitiesOrgansofspeech二個(gè)重要區(qū)域發(fā)音器官Pharyngealf?rind?i:?lcavity-thethroat0r?;咽脛，喉嚨Theoralcavity-themouth;口脛

15、，嘴巴Nasal'ne?z?lcavity-thenose.鼻腔，鼻子Lips,teeth,teethridgerid?(alveolus)齒齦,hardpalate硬腭,softpalate(velum)軟腭,uvula'ju:vjul?小舌,tipoftongueInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).國際音標(biāo)Orthographic?:。？*？fiklrepresentationofspeechsounds語首的正子法表征Broadtranscription【tr?n'skr?p?】-thetranscriptionwithlette

16、r-symbolsonly寬式標(biāo)音是用代表字母的符號(hào)標(biāo)音Narrowtranscription-thetranscriptionwithdiacritics.,dai?kritik嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音是用代表字母的符號(hào)和變音共同標(biāo)音Voiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.,?nim'pi:did清音是當(dāng)聲帶完全張開，氣流通過聲帶而不引起振動(dòng)Voicing/voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelu

17、ngsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationva'bre?neffect濁化是當(dāng)氣流在強(qiáng)行穿過的時(shí)候會(huì)使他們以不同的速度振動(dòng)。ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英語語音的分類Vowels'va?landConsonants'k?ns?n?nt元音和輔音Classificationofconsonants輔首的分類-Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensionsdi'men?n:1Th

18、emannerofarticulation2Theplaceofarticulation英語中的輔音按兩種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)劃分：1發(fā)音方式2發(fā)音部位Themannerofarticulationstops/plosives:p,t,d,k,g;閉塞音fricatives'frik?tivf,v,s,z,h;affricates'?frikit:,;塞擦音liquids'likwid:r;l流音nasals'ne?z?l:m,n,;鼻音glideslaid:w,j.滑音Theplaceofarticulationbilabialbai'leibi?l:p,m,w,b雙

19、唇音labiodental'leibi?u'dentl:f,v;唇齒音dental.dent?l:,;齒音alveolar?l'vi?l?:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;齒齦音palatal'p?l?t?l:,j;腭音velar'vi:l?:k,g,;軟顆音glottal'3?tl:h.喉音ClassificationofEnglishvowels英語兀首的分類1. thepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,centerorback2. theopeningofthemouthclose,semi-close,sem

20、i-open,open3. theshapeofthelips-rounded,unrounded4. thelengthofthesound-tense,lax（緊，松）Monophthongs'm?n?uf?orpure/singlevowels兀首backvowelsDiphthongs'd?f,?:?orglidingvowels雙兀首frontvowelscentralvowelsClose閉Semi-close:半閉Semi-open:半開Open:開PhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thati

21、s,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsound

22、svaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaims

23、toanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophonePhone:thedifferentversionso

24、ftheabstractunitphonemePhoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarksAllophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephonemePhoneAphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,

25、somedon't,e.g.bt&bt,spt&spt.PhonemeAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpt,tpandspt.AllophoneAllophones-thephonesthatcanrepresent

26、aphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.Phonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbtandpt.Complementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.

27、Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&unaspiratedp.MinimalpairMinimalpairwhentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but

28、,bait,bite,boat.SomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleSequentialrules-therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,biI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertoget

29、heratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a) thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b) thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c) thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomediale

30、cts,e.g.inCantonese:牛肉，我，俄語”Assimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolarninconceivablevelarinputbilabialAssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊ha

31、iya看啊kanna唱啊chang跳啊tiaowaDeletionrule-ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisnogsound;butthegsoundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Syllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofav

32、oweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.mn.Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.Butl,nandmmightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism&qu

33、ot;.Suprasegmentalfeaturesthephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):Stress:wordstressandsentencestressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:import;increase;rebel;recordnoun:import;inc

34、rease;rebel;recordSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdognounphrase:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdogThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:dining-ro

35、om;readingroom;sleepingbagdoer:sleepingbaby;swimmingfish;flyingplaneSentencestresstherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjuncti

36、onsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.m

37、a媽(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma馬(thethirdrise)ma罵(thefourthfall)IntonationWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquest

38、ion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,"That'snotthebookhewants.”GrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsIntonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a) Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.b) Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthes

39、entencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g."Johndidn'tcomeMarry"Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn'tcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquickl

40、ymadeaprofit.”c) Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.d) Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thes

41、pecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.Summary:Featuresthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Str

42、essisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpresside

43、as.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbediffer

44、entwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution-phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordstha

45、tdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.Howev

46、er,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution-allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme

47、.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelangua

48、gemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.本章重點(diǎn)：Phonologyisamajorbranchoflinguistics.Itisthestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguagesandofthegeneralpropertiesofsoundsystems.ThedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonologyPhoneticsisregardedasthelinguisticstudytoidentifyanddescribethecharacteristicsofallthespeechsoundsthatoc

49、curinallhumanlanguages,whereasphonologyisthedescriptionofthesoundsystemsandpatternsofindividuallanguages.Phoneticsprovidesthemeansforphonologicaldescription.Andinasense,phonologyisreallytheapplicationofphoneticstotheprocessofcommunicationinaparticularlanguageorlanguages.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheprodu

50、ction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds;phonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Speaker'sm-ndmouthearlistener'smindPhonologyphoneticsPhoneticsSoundsoflanguageParole,speechactUniversalConcretePhonologyfunctioningofsoundsaspa

51、rtofalanguagelanguage,languagesystemlanguage-specificabstractPhonephoneme/AphoneisAphonemeisOneofmanypossiblesoundsinthelanguagesoftheworldThesmallestidentifiableunitfoundinastreamofspeechwordsAdistinctiveunitinthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguageAminimalunitthatservestodistinguishbetweenmeaningsofAl

52、thoughbotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,phoneticsstudiestheproduction,transmission,andreceptionofsoundswhilephonologyfocusesonthelinguisticpatternsofspeechsoundsandhowtheyareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.PronouncedinadefinedwayPronouncedinoneormoreways,dependingonthenumberofallophonesR

53、epresentedbetweenbracketsbyconventionRepresentedbetweenslashedbyconventionExample:,lExample:/b/,/l/Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Thedifferentphonesrepresentingaphon

54、emeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalleditsallophones(音位變體Thedefinitionsofphone,phoneme,allophone,minimalpairandfreevariation,theoriesonphoneme,phonemiccontrastandcomplementarydistribution,featureonphoneticsimilarityanddistinction;assimilationrule,deletionrule,suprasegmetnalfeatures(syllables,str

55、ess,tone,intonation,pitch,etc.)Howdoyoufindaphoneme?YouknowsomethingisaphonemeifitisadistinctivesoundinthelanguageHowdoyoufindthesoundsdistinctive?Ifyoufindaminimalpair,youknowthesoundsaredistinctiveWhatisminimalpair?Ifyouhavetwowordswhichareexactlyidenticalwithrespecttosoundsexceptforonesound,andth

56、edifferentsoundsareatthesameposition,andthetwowordshavedifferentmeanings,thenyouhaveaminimalpair.PhoneticsthestudyofspeechsoundsPhonologythestudyofsoundssystemsPhonemevs.phone/allophone/phoneme/abstractActualsound/t/phonemePhoneTwophonesneveroccurinthesameenvironmentcomplementarydistributionITwophon

57、escanoccurinthesameenvironmentfreevariationAlthoughwegeneralizesomerulesforwordstress,itshouldbeborninmindthatsometimestheexceptionsmay7wellmakeonegiveuptheidealofrules.Exercisesfromourschool:1. Complementarydistribution2. whatisarticulatoryphonetics,explaintheprimacyofspeechoverwriting,3. dividethefollowingwordsintomorphemes.Foreachmorpheme,identifythetype(lexicalorgrammatical,freeorbound,prefixorsuffix,inflectionalorderivational),whereapplicable.1) restate2)