英語語言學(xué)筆記

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of languageArbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)Duality（二層性）:The property of havin

2、g two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Productivity/creativity(創(chuàng)造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new

3、signals by its users. Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational) Interpersonal(人際功能):

4、 to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) Performative(施為功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare). Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speak

5、er. Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) Recreational function(娛樂): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)Metalingual function(元語

6、言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & parole Competence & performance6.Descriptive(描寫/述性)describ

7、e and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(規(guī)定性)lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共時)description of a language at some point of

8、 time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (歷時) description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 第四章1What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences.句法就是研究語言的

9、不同成分組成句子的規(guī)則2Four Approaches :The traditional approach傳統(tǒng)語言觀 (Parts of speech、Syntactic Function不考、Category范疇、Concord and government一致關(guān)系和支配關(guān)系)、The structural approach結(jié)構(gòu)語言觀、The generative approach、The functional approach功能語言觀3The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays

10、 great attention to the study of words, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, preposit

11、ions, conjunctions and interjections.5The term Category范疇 in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范疇這一術(shù)語狹義上是指詞類和功能 eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun名詞的范疇,

12、include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb動詞的范疇: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名詞和不可數(shù)名詞.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural單數(shù)和復(fù)數(shù)Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gende

13、r is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在詞類分析中，格范疇用來辨別句子中詞之

14、間的句法關(guān)系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive與格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense時態(tài): the absolute location of an event or actio

15、n on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. As

16、pect體: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed.Perfective（完成體） and Imperfective（進(jìn)行體）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice語態(tài): describe the relationship between verb and subject Passive被動語態(tài) and active主動語態(tài)12. Concord and government Concord (一致關(guān)系) r

17、efers to agreement between words, especially between a verband the subject of a sentence.Government (支配關(guān)系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs a

18、nd nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置關(guān)系、Relations of substitutability替代關(guān)系、Relations of co-occurrence同現(xiàn)關(guān)系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysi

19、s.16.An endocentric construction (向心結(jié)構(gòu)) is a construction that contains: 1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction; 2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head. 17.theme (主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listenerRheme (述位)

20、 refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammaticalside.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (funct

21、ional side) 第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.語義學(xué)是研究單詞、短語和句子的意義的學(xué)科2Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7種意義類型:Conceptual meaning概念意義Connotative meaning內(nèi)涵意義Social meaning社會意義Affective meaning 感情意義 Associative Meaning聯(lián)想意義（）Reflected meaning

22、反射意義Collocative meaning搭配意義Thematic meaning主位意義3.Conceptual meaning (概念意義) is also called “denotative”（外延義）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意義也叫外延義，它關(guān)注詞語跟它所指稱事物之間的聯(lián)系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (聯(lián)想意義)

23、 is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意義) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由詞序和詞語重音所決定的6. The Referen

24、tial Theory（指稱理論）： The Referential TheoryThe Semantic Triangle Sense and Reference7.The referential theory 指稱理論 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指稱論是把詞語意義跟它所指稱的事物聯(lián)系起來的理論8. The semantic triangle語意三角 is the indirectrelation between a word and a thi

25、ng it refers to and it is mediated by concept.語意三角指詞和所指事物之間沒有直接關(guān)系，它們是以概念為中介的9.Sense (涵義) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指稱) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, whi

26、le its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵義關(guān)系Synonymy（同義關(guān)系）Antonymy（反義關(guān)系） （Gradable、Complementary、Converse）Hyponymy（上下義關(guān)系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable ant

27、onymy (等級反義關(guān)系) 、Complementary antonymy (互補(bǔ)反義關(guān)系)、Converse antonymy (反向反義關(guān)系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences Synonymity (同義) a. He was a bachelor all his lif

28、e. b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence Inconsistency (矛盾) a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England. b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction

29、: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence. Entailment (蘊涵) a. He married a blonde heiress. b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y. Presupposition (前提預(yù)設(shè))It is what a speaker or

30、writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.Contradiction (矛盾)Semantic anomaly (語義反常)18. An integrated theoryCompositionality(組合性原則)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.This semantic theory is the integration of sy

31、ntax and semanticsTheir basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rulesThe dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of wordsThe projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.L

32、ogical semantics（邏輯語義學(xué)）A proposition(命題) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章1.Language and Culture：Sapir-W

33、horf HypothesisEvidence Given by Whorf Implication of SWH Relation between Language and Culture2SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (語言決定論): the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (語言決

34、定思維) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every langua

35、ge is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterations4.Language and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers）Bilingualism and

36、DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialectsand varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Varieties ：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、 Language and gender、 Language and age、 Idiolect、 Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of

37、language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that h

38、as experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its us

39、e in a context of situation.11.Hallidays Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (語場)、 tenor of discourse (語旨)、 mode of discourse (語式)12.Bilingualism (雙語制): the use of

40、two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (雙語體現(xiàn)象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.14A pidgin : it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each others language.15.A creole : when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become