英語教學(xué)法教程unit11課件

1、Unit 11Teaching Reading Unit 11Teaching Reading 2Aims of the Unit To understand the meaning of readingTo understand what are the components for the good readerTo know the factors affecting the reading processTo know three models for reading and three levels of readingTo get to know the principles of

2、 reading and teaching reading stages and activities 2Aims of the Unit To understan3What is reading?1.Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses about what is coming next, sample the text again in order to test their hypotheses, confirm(or

3、 disconfirm) them, make new hypotheses, and so forth.(Goodman,1967)2.Reading is a creative art, reading is interaction, reading id interpretation, reading is a social art, and reading is responding.( Eric)3.Reading is an interactive process, involving knowledge of the world and various types of lang

4、uage knowledge, any of which may interact with any other to contribute to text comprehension. (Carrell et al 1988)4. Reading is an active process of comprehending and the students need to be taught strategies to read more efficiently. (Clark and Silberstein 1977)3What is reading?1.Reading is 4conten

5、tsResearch findings about good readersFactors affecting readingStrategies in reading comprehensionPrinciples in teaching readingApproaches of teaching readingThree levels of readingObjectives of teaching reading4contentsResearch findings abo5Guidelines for reading instructionContents of teaching ins

6、tructionClassroom activities Reading stages5Guidelines for reading instru6Research findings about fluent/good readers1.The difference between good readers and poor readers may lie not in their ability to guess, but in their decoding skills(Paran,1996)2. Good readers use context less than poor reader

7、s do. They decode faster.(Stanovich,1980)3. Good readers may have greater awareness of context, but they do not need to use it while they are reading.(Oakhill and Garnham,1988)4. Good readers know the language. They can decode with occasional exceptions, both the lexical and syntactic structures the

8、y encounter in texts, and they do so for the most part, not by guessing from context or prior knowledge by the word, but by a kind of automatic identification that requires no conscious effort.(Eskey D 1988)6Research findings about fluen75. Word recognition is automatic in good readers.( Mitchell,19

9、82)6. Poor readers most make use of contextual redundancy to facilitate recognition.7. A fluent reader may possess the skill of rapid, automatic word recognition, but may resort to strategies such as phonological encoding when faced with an unfamiliar word. Fluent readers typically ignore rather tha

10、n guess unknown lexis ( Tlmlinson& Ellis, 1987)8. Fluent reading is rapid, purposeful, interactive, comprehending, flexible and gradually developing.75. Word recognition is automa8Factors affecting reading1.Background knowledgeAccording to Carrell, lack of background knowledge constitutes one of the

11、 main difficulties of reading.A lack of schemata activation is one major source of processing difficulty with second language readers. Thus students need to activate prior knowledge of a topic before they begin to read. If students dont have sufficient prior knowledge, they should be given at least

12、minimal background knowledge from which to interpret the text( Barrett,1989; Carrell,1988;Dubin &Bycina,1991)2. MotivationReaders with higher interest engage more carefully with the text, though the level of reader interest is not maintained independently of the text, and may decrease while reading

13、is in progress, if the text does not meet expectations (Olshaksy,1977)8Factors affecting reading1.Ba93. VocabularyVocabulary development is a critical component of reading comprehension. Vocabulary is an important predictor of reading ability( Barnett,1986) Shortage of vocabulary and inability to de

14、code automatically are the prime difficulty in reading. According to a survey,90% of the students who have difficulties in reading report to have decoding difficulty (Footman1996)4. StructureUnfamiliarity with structures may also make it difficult to read. But lexis is a greater source of difficulty

15、 in reading than structures.5. Reading strategiesStrategies are the insurance of effective reading. Being unable to apply relevant strategies often lead to failure of understanding.93. Vocabulary106. Instruction Reading instruction plays an important role in the improvement of students reading abili

16、ty. The procedure of instruction, techniques applied, materials selected, monitoring of the reading process, and evaluation of reading all contribute to the improvement of reading ability. Many times, it is the instruction itself that de-motivates the students and hinders their improvement.106. Inst

17、ruction 11The Objectives of the Teaching of the ReadingTo develop reading proficiencyTo develop linguistic competence11The Objectives of the Teachi12Objectives of reading instruction1.To make readers less reliant on top-down processing, and help them progress towards greater reliance on bottom-up st

18、rategies as they become more proficient.2.To train reading skills. As far as skills are concerned, different researchers propose different lists. 3.Objectives of reading instruction at elementary levela.To enable students to develop basic comprehension skills so that they can read and understand tex

19、ts of a general natureb.To enable students to use reading to increase their general knowledgec.To enable students to decide about their reading purpose and to adapt their methods of reading according to thisd.To enable students to develop the ability to read critically12Objectives of reading instru1

20、3II.Reading Skills and Language SkillsScanningSkimmingReading for thorough comprehensionCritical readingVocabularyStructureDiscourse13II.Reading Skills and Langu14Approaches/models of teaching reading14Approaches/models of teachiphrasesclausessentencesCould not see the wood for the treesCould not se

21、e the the treestopbottomparagraphswordslettersIntensive ReadingExtensive ReadingphrasesclausessentencesCould n16Strategies involved in reading comprehensionThere are two broad levels in the art of reading :A recognition task of perceiving visual signals from the printed page through the eyes;A cogni

22、tive task of interpreting the visual information, relating the received information with the readers own general knowledge, and reconstructing the meaning that the writer had meant to convey.In order to achieve these two levels of reading, the reader needs to develop the following reading strategies

23、: 16Strategies involved in readi17Specifying a purpose for readingPlanning what to dowhat steps to takePreviewing the textPredicting the contents of the textChecking predictionsSkimming the text for the main ideaScanning the text for specific information Distinguishing main ideas from supporting det

24、ails17Specifying a purpose for rea18Posing questions about the textFinding answers to posed questionsConnecting text to background knowledgeSummarizing informationMaking inferencesConnecting one part of the text to anotherPaying attention to text structureRereading 18Posing questions about the t19Gu

25、essing the meaning of a new word from contextUsing discourse markers to see relationshipsChecking comprehensionIdentifying difficultiesTaking steps to repair faulty comprehensionCritiquing the authorJudging how well objectives were metReflecting on what has been learned from the text Adapted from Gr

26、ade and Stoller, 2002:83)19Guessing the meaning of a ne20Principles for teaching readingThe selected texts and attached tasks should be accessible to the students.Tasks should be clearly given in advance. Preferably, tasks should motivate students.Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and

27、intelligent reading for the main meaning rather than test the students understanding of trivial details.20Principles for teaching read214. Tasks should help develop students reading skills rather than test their comprehension.5. The teacher should help students not merely to cope with one particular

28、 text in class but to develop their reading strategies and reading ability in general.6. The teacher should provide enough guidance and assistance at the beginning to help students read and develop reading strategies but gradually withdraw his/her guidance as students progress214. Tasks should help

29、develop22Bottom-up model/viewPeople with this view tend to over-emphasize the importance of the bottom-up processing in which the reader identifies the text from the smaller constituents to the larger ones and from the lower level to the higher one. The reader works at the text letter by letter, wor

30、d for word, piece by piece, line by line. He starts with spelling, recognizes the word and tries to understand its meaning, and then goes through the same procedures with the next word until he gets a phrase and then next phrase, and perhaps a sense group until a clause is identified and then, maybe

31、, next clause. He goes on doing the same thing with even letter and very word and gets a sentence and continue to find the following sentence, then paragraphs and finally the whole discourse. That is to say, he is decoding every word every phrase every clause and every sentence up to every paragraph

32、 and the whole text. He begins at the very bottom meaning of every word and works towards the meaning of the whole discourse. This is bottom-up processing and this is what one is mainly doing when he is reading. 22Bottom-up model/viewPeople w23(Based on Camboume,B.1979. How important is theory to th

33、e reading Teacher? Australian Journal/Reading, 2:78-90. Cited in Nunan 1991:64)This model has been very important and still emphasized and advocated by those who attach more importance to basics and was the basis of many reading schemes( Camboums1979 cited in Nunan1991:63)According to the bottom-up

34、approach, the biggest difficulty in reading is vocabulary. So in its pre-reading stage, it always includes some vocabulary learning activities. Even its brainstorming activity will focus on the vocabulary to appear in the text. During the while-reading stage, it also has some activities for practice

35、 and consolidation of vocabulary and structures.23(Based on Camboume,B.1979. H24Top-down model/viewDifferent from those with bottom-up view, those in favor of top-down view emphasize the equal importance of top-down processing. They believe that language comprehension involves two processingbottom-u

36、p processing and top-down processing at the same time. While the reader is being engaged in working out the meaning of the text at bottom levels, he is also using his own knowledge and applies it to the up-coming information gained by decoding bottom-up processing. His own knowledge applied here to

37、the reading processing may include his knowledge of this world factual and sociocultural knowledge, knowledge of the topic of the text, knowledge of the situation and context, knowledge of the organization of the text etc.The result of the application of his own knowledge are his expectations antici

38、pations and hypotheses about what has bee reading, what is being read and what is to be read. While he is making sense of what is read, he is making 24Top-down model/view25hypotheses of what is read. The whole process of reading is a process of making hypotheses and predicting, matching his hypothes

39、is to the up-coming decoded information, confirming and revising his hypotheses, testing out and modifying his predictions, and trying to interpret what is read. It is a process of interaction between the reader and the text. During this whole process of reading, the reader is bringing knowledge fro

40、m outside the text to the task of interpreting and comprehending the text itself. In other words, he is utilizing both “inside the head” knowledge and “outside the head” knowledge to interpret what he sees. The use of “inside the head”knowledge, that is, knowledge which is not directly encoded in th

41、e words he is reading is known as the top-down view.Top-down approach treats reading as a guess game. It emphasizes the role of background knowledge in the understanding of the material. Different readers will, because of different experiences of the world, create different meaning from the same tex

42、t. So at its pre-reading stage, it tends to arrange for activities to activate readers schema, or encourage the readers to predict the text.25hypotheses of what is read. 26Interactive-compensatory View (interactive model )Stanovich proposes a third model which he calls an interactive-compensatory mo

43、del. As the name indicates, this model suggests that reader process texts by utilizing information provided simultaneously from several different sources, and that they can compensate for deficiencies at one level by drawing on knowledge at other levels.(either higher or lower).These sources include

44、 all those looked at separately in bottom-up and top-down processes, that is phonological, lexical,syntactic,semantic and discoursal knowledge.Stanovich claims that his alternative model is superior because it deals with the shortcomings inherent in other models. The major deficiency of the bottom-u

45、p model is that it assumes the initiation of higher-level processes, such as use of background knowledge must await lower level decoding processes. The top-down model, on the other hand, does not allow lower level processes to direct higher level ones. The interactive-compensatory model allows defic

46、iencies at one level to be compensated for at another, and this allows for the possibility that readers with poor reading skills at the levels of grapheme and word can26Interactive-compensatory Vie27Compensate for these by using other sources of knowledge such as the syntactic class of a given word

47、or semantic knowledge. Given deficiencies of lower level skills, poor readers may actually be more dependent on higher-level processes than good readers.The interactive approach regards reading as an interactive activity. First, it is general interaction between the reader and the text. The reader (

48、re)constructs the text information based in part on the knowledge drawn from the text and in part from the prior knowledge available to the reader. Second, it is interaction of many component skills potentially in simultaneous operation. The interaction of these cognitive skills leads to fluent read

49、ing comprehension.27Compensate for these by usin28Schema theoryAccording to schema theory, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the readers background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to ones own knowledge. Comprehe

50、nding words, sentences, and entire texts involves more than just relying on ones linguistic knowledge. As Anderson points out “every act of comprehension involves ones knowledge of the world as well”According to schema theory, the process of interpretation is guided by the principle that every input

51、 is mapped against some existing schema and that all aspects of that schema must be compatible with the input information. This principle results in two basic modes of information processing, called bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing is evoked by the incoming data. The features

52、of the data enter the system through the best fitting bottom-level schemeta. Schemata are hierarchically organized, from most general at the top to most specific at the bottom. As these bottom-level schemata converge into higher level, more general schemata, these too become activated.28Schema theor

53、yAccording to sc29Bottom-up processing is therefore, called data-driven; Top-down processing, on the other hand, occurs as the system makes general predictions based on higher level, general schemata and then searches the input for information to fit into these partially satisfied, higher order sche

54、mata. Top-down processing is therefore, called conceptually driven.An important aspect of top-down and bottom-up processing is that both should be occurring at all levels simultaneously (Rumeihart.1980) The data that are needed to instantiate or fill out, the schemata become available through bottom

55、-up processing; top-down processing facilitates their assimilation if they are anticipated by or consistent with the listener/readers conceptual expectations. Bottom-up processing ensures that the listeners/readers will be sensitive to information that novel or that does not fit their ongoing hypoth

56、eses about the content or structure of the text; top-down processing helps the interpretations of the incoming data.29Bottom-up processing is ther30Three levels of reading1.literal reading, or plain sense reading, meaning read the lines, that is to understand the plain sense of what is stated in the

57、 text.2. Deductive reading, referring to reading between the lines, that is to draw inferences from what is in the text.3. Projective reading, reading beyond the lines, that is to relate the reading passages to real life or to the readers own opinions, knowledge, imagination and experience.30Three l

58、evels of reading1.lit31Guidelines for reading instructionReading instruction should be taught in the context of a content-centered integrated skills curriculumReading lab should be used to provide individualized instruction as well as to practice certain skills and strategies outside of the content-

59、centered course.Sustained silent reading should be encouraged to build fluency (automaticity) ,confidence and appreciation of readingReading lessons should be planned in a pre-during and post-reading framework in order to build background knowledge, practice reading skills within texts themselves, a

60、nd engage in comprehension instruction.Specific skills and strategies should be given high priority and practiced consistently.The particular skills and strategies to be stressed depend on the educational contexts, students needs and teaching objectives31Guidelines for reading instr326. Group work a