團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理-講義課件

團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理Chapter9

WorkTeam&Groups

Groups&TeamsGroup-twoormorepeoplewithcommoninterestsorobjectives

Team-asmallnumberofpeoplewithcomplementaryskillswhoarecommittedtoacommonmission,performancegoals,andapproachforwhichtheyholdthemselvesmutuallyaccountable經(jīng)典文學(xué)作品蘊(yùn)含著人們普遍的審美觀念，有著跨越時(shí)間與空間的永恒價(jià)值，就好像是一顆孜孜不倦生長的大樹，這些繁茂的樹枝過濾著沙塵、煩躁和平凡，根深枝茂的根系吸取著明凈、穩(wěn)健和高雅。學(xué)生仔細(xì)賞鑒這些極具代表性的文學(xué)作品，能夠不斷提升思想觀念與自身素養(yǎng)，而且從賞鑒過程中吸取作品的精華之處，將汲取的知識應(yīng)用至寫作活動(dòng)與日常互動(dòng)中，不斷提升自身的語文素質(zhì)。我們農(nóng)村初中學(xué)生手中的讀物，無非是作文選編和學(xué)習(xí)輔導(dǎo)材料之類，他們的閱讀大多是一種為應(yīng)付考試而進(jìn)行的活動(dòng)，經(jīng)典文學(xué)作品讀得少之又少。他們賞鑒這些極具代表性的文學(xué)作品，只是因?yàn)樽陨砼d趣，通常會(huì)碰到閱讀障礙，如果跨過該問題，就能夠更好地進(jìn)行賞鑒；假設(shè)無法跨過障礙，就會(huì)覺得沒有任何意義，只會(huì)閱讀幾頁就放棄。而老師的任務(wù)就是要不斷指引他們解決存在的問題，使學(xué)生順利進(jìn)入文學(xué)殿堂暢快閱讀。目前，學(xué)生有著十分巨大的升學(xué)負(fù)擔(dān)，學(xué)習(xí)壓力巨大，大量教師與家長想要這些學(xué)生僅閱讀和考試相關(guān)的知識點(diǎn)。即使我們不留手寫作業(yè)，很多家長也想方設(shè)法加壓。這是一種社會(huì)現(xiàn)象，使得學(xué)生很少有時(shí)間和精力去閱讀經(jīng)典文學(xué)作品。觀念決定行動(dòng)，我們利用班會(huì)和家長會(huì)向?qū)W生和家長宣講經(jīng)典閱讀的意義；利用班級黑板報(bào)、手抄報(bào)等多種媒體展示有關(guān)經(jīng)典閱讀的名言佳句，營造閱讀氣氛。在指引學(xué)生賞鑒這些極具代表性文學(xué)作品的過程中，不只是簡單地安排閱讀內(nèi)容或者是說明賞鑒經(jīng)典作品的優(yōu)勢就可以實(shí)現(xiàn)的，必須在平常的交流過程中不斷進(jìn)行熏陶。經(jīng)典名著閱讀教學(xué)的成功，很大程度上也取決于教師的閱讀感受。蘇霍姆林斯基提出：“將這些學(xué)生引入經(jīng)典作品的海洋中，進(jìn)而培育起對于書籍的熱愛，使得這些書籍逐漸成為智力生活中的引領(lǐng)人，這些均由老師所決定，主要是取決于書本在老師自身的精神生活中占據(jù)什么樣的位置。”老師對于這些極具代表性文學(xué)的尊重和閱讀體驗(yàn)，或許會(huì)對于他們的一生產(chǎn)生一定影響。陶行知、朱自清等學(xué)者就是以其淵博的知識指引大量學(xué)生踏入文學(xué)道路的，這是非常值得所有老師進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)的。我們不只是需要閱讀極具代表性的文學(xué)作品，也需要賞鑒現(xiàn)在的作品；不只是要賞鑒我國的經(jīng)典作品，還要賞鑒其他國家的經(jīng)典作品?！栋餐缴挕?、《格林童話》、《朝花夕拾》、《駱駝祥子》、《西游記》……在語文新課標(biāo)“關(guān)于課外讀物的建議”中，能夠看到大量的經(jīng)典書名。所有閱讀過名著的人均會(huì)相信，在經(jīng)典作品的后面，蘊(yùn)含著無盡的知識寶藏，這些知識經(jīng)過了長時(shí)間的洗禮與沉淀，還是那么的明亮。也能夠借助與學(xué)生的溝通，使得這些學(xué)生說明自己閱讀了哪些優(yōu)美的作品、有什么樣的體驗(yàn)，并且進(jìn)行一定激勵(lì)，讓他們從內(nèi)心迸發(fā)出一定的自豪感，使其他學(xué)生對他們形成一種敬仰狀態(tài)，這是為了不斷激勵(lì)他們進(jìn)行閱讀經(jīng)典作品的興趣。為了能夠更好地帶動(dòng)他們的閱讀積極性，能夠?qū)⑺麄兪熘闹T葛亮、老舍、董卿等人物閱讀與成功的例子進(jìn)行生動(dòng)描述，使他們了解到“只有滿腹經(jīng)倫，才可以出口成章”，“若有詩書藏在心，歲月從不敗美人”的道理；使得他們了解閱讀活動(dòng)能夠知曉大量的知識；這些學(xué)生了解到語文課文即使是十分優(yōu)美的，帶給我們的知識也是有所限制的，但是經(jīng)典作品中涉及的知識是無限的，如果你不斷閱讀與研究，就可以盡情感受閱讀帶來的無限樂趣。平時(shí)我們少布置些語文課后作業(yè)，留下一定的時(shí)間讓學(xué)生靜心賞鑒、摘錄；每天借助課余時(shí)間進(jìn)行閱讀活動(dòng)，保證每天不少于二十到三十分鐘進(jìn)行經(jīng)典閱讀；每天讓學(xué)生吟誦名篇佳作，介紹積累摘錄的好詞佳句。每周還安排一節(jié)經(jīng)典閱讀指導(dǎo)課，讓學(xué)生讀好書、善讀書。每月舉行一次閱讀展示擂臺賽，評選“閱讀大王”、“閱讀能手”或“每月一星”，以此激發(fā)學(xué)生的閱讀熱情。每學(xué)期舉辦一次“讀書節(jié)”，以朗誦、演講、辯論、戲劇表演等多種形式，促進(jìn)學(xué)生大量閱讀，從經(jīng)典文學(xué)中汲取營養(yǎng)。如果發(fā)現(xiàn)這些學(xué)生在回答問題或者是寫作過程中使用了經(jīng)典作品中所涉及的知識，就進(jìn)行一定贊揚(yáng)，讓學(xué)生感到讀書實(shí)實(shí)在在的好處，還可以對讀書已成自覺的同學(xué)進(jìn)行隆重的表彰。必須提出的是，這些學(xué)生自我判斷水平還是十分缺乏的，在賞鑒文學(xué)作品的階段中非常容易斷章取義、讓經(jīng)典屈從我意。這需要教師、家長等進(jìn)行必要的引導(dǎo)，激勵(lì)這些學(xué)生盡可能賞鑒原著，盡可能保護(hù)原著原有的面貌，進(jìn)而體驗(yàn)到經(jīng)典作品固有的精華之處。讓他們對于文學(xué)作品進(jìn)行賞鑒的時(shí)候，盡可能激勵(lì)家長也共同閱讀，指引孩子共同感受?典作品所帶來的魅力，說說自身的閱讀體會(huì)，針對作品中某個(gè)情節(jié)與人物進(jìn)行互動(dòng)討論，利用經(jīng)典作品進(jìn)行教育活動(dòng)，其實(shí)是有著現(xiàn)實(shí)意義的環(huán)節(jié)。學(xué)校是這些學(xué)生賞鑒經(jīng)典作品的最好場合，不過家庭也能夠促進(jìn)他們更好地賞鑒作品，能夠經(jīng)常組織一系列的閱讀活動(dòng)。經(jīng)典作品是千百年來前人的實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)與智慧結(jié)晶，一個(gè)人假設(shè)并未在學(xué)生時(shí)期賞鑒名著，那么不只是會(huì)使得人生面對缺憾，并且難以抵抗來自于各層面的打擊?！对姟吩疲骸拔宜脊湃耍瑢?shí)獲我心。”我認(rèn)為讓學(xué)生誦讀經(jīng)典詩詞歌賦、賞鑒國內(nèi)外名著，在書籍的海洋中無限遨游，能夠更好地吸取知識的精華部分；在閱讀過程中有所收獲，能夠不斷體驗(yàn)經(jīng)典作品帶來的無限魅力，這是所有老師必須考慮的重要問題。（尹蘭江蘇省如皋市東陳初級中學(xué)226571）教育為社會(huì)發(fā)展服務(wù)，在競爭日益激烈的今天，國與國之間、企業(yè)與企業(yè)之間、人與人之間的競爭其實(shí)就是創(chuàng)新能力的比拼。創(chuàng)新能力是人類突破舊認(rèn)識、舊事物，探索和創(chuàng)造有價(jià)值的新知識、新事物的能力。學(xué)校教育是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生創(chuàng)新能力的一個(gè)主要平臺。而英語作為一門重要的工具學(xué)科，讓學(xué)生具有扎實(shí)的英語基礎(chǔ)知識和為交際初步運(yùn)用英語的能力是基本的教學(xué)目的。但是，在英語教學(xué)中利用一切機(jī)會(huì)培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的創(chuàng)新意識和創(chuàng)新能力也是我們英語教師不可推卸的責(zé)任。英語教師可以充分利用教學(xué)課堂，對學(xué)生進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新意識的培養(yǎng)。從而為國家為社會(huì)培養(yǎng)出一代有扎實(shí)基礎(chǔ)、有創(chuàng)新精神、有開拓能力的高素質(zhì)人才。那么，英語教師如何在課堂教學(xué)中進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新教育呢？一、學(xué)會(huì)探究提問養(yǎng)成自學(xué)能力愛因斯坦說過：“提出一個(gè)問題，往往比解決一個(gè)問題更重要?！睂W(xué)會(huì)學(xué)習(xí)，本質(zhì)是提出問題、獨(dú)立思考、融會(huì)貫通。拿預(yù)習(xí)環(huán)節(jié)來說，學(xué)生常常是走馬觀花，不假思索。于是，在學(xué)生預(yù)習(xí)前，我列出這單元這一課學(xué)習(xí)的的重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)和關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)，從而使學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)有方向感。學(xué)生通過學(xué)習(xí)思考，生生交流大致能明確學(xué)習(xí)的內(nèi)容，從而提高了學(xué)習(xí)效率。古人云：“授人以魚，不如授之以漁。”把科學(xué)有效的學(xué)習(xí)方法教給學(xué)生是優(yōu)化教育的優(yōu)先選擇。聯(lián)合國教科文組織提出了終身學(xué)習(xí)的概念，而自學(xué)能力就是終身學(xué)習(xí)的根本。教育家葉圣陶說：“教是為了不教。”“不教是為了養(yǎng)成學(xué)生有一定的自學(xué)能力?！彼?，創(chuàng)新教育的關(guān)鍵是教給學(xué)生學(xué)會(huì)學(xué)習(xí)，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的自學(xué)能力。只有教師轉(zhuǎn)變教育理念，切實(shí)樹立培養(yǎng)學(xué)生創(chuàng)新思維的意識，才能在教學(xué)中滲透創(chuàng)新思維訓(xùn)練，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的創(chuàng)新能力。二、創(chuàng)設(shè)自由寬松的學(xué)習(xí)氛圍自由寬松的學(xué)習(xí)氛圍有利于學(xué)生保持求學(xué)的欲望和興趣，是學(xué)生快樂成長的土壤。著名教育家羅杰斯說：“成功的教育依賴于一種真誠的理解和信任的師生關(guān)系，依賴于一種和諧的安全的課堂氣氛。”師生之間建立親密融洽的關(guān)系是學(xué)生信心和勇氣的源泉。教師在英語教學(xué)過程中要善于發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)生優(yōu)點(diǎn)，保護(hù)他們的自信心，對于他們思維中的合理因素要及時(shí)鼓勵(lì)。在課堂教學(xué)中，我常常以隨意閑聊的方式來引出新課，并把快樂和激情貫穿整個(gè)課堂。比如，有一次我領(lǐng)著學(xué)生復(fù)習(xí)教材內(nèi)容Couldyouhelpme,please?，我興高采烈地抱著一個(gè)看起來特別沉重的鐵皮盒子走進(jìn)教室，求助似的對大家說：“Theboxisheavy.Whocanhelpme?”話音未落，就有學(xué)生跑過來要幫我拿。于是我把這個(gè)箱子交給了一位瘦小的男同學(xué)，問他：“Couldyouhelpme?”他接過箱子便說：“Certainly.”然后我又問他：“Isitheavy?”他特意掂了掂盒子的份量說：“No，itisn'theavy.It'slight.”(這就是這單元學(xué)習(xí)的重點(diǎn))隨后我又借機(jī)問學(xué)生：“Whatisinthebox,doyouknow?”于是大家猜起來，課堂氣氛更加熱烈。等到大家急不可待了，我像變魔術(shù)一樣從這只大箱子里拿出大家喜歡的各種各樣的玩具和水果，每樣?xùn)|西都要求學(xué)生描述它們的顏色和形狀，凡是猜對的同學(xué)都得到了相應(yīng)的東西。這樣，在不經(jīng)意間，學(xué)生已經(jīng)掌握了如何用英語提供幫助和如何描述事物，學(xué)生們也在熱烈的師生互動(dòng)中感受到了學(xué)習(xí)語言的無窮樂趣，學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語的興趣和學(xué)好英語的自信心也在這些“似教非教”的課堂活動(dòng)中被激發(fā)了出來。三、提供創(chuàng)新探索機(jī)會(huì)素質(zhì)教育是面向全體學(xué)生的教育，對于學(xué)生來說獲得學(xué)習(xí)的方法，自覺學(xué)習(xí)的習(xí)慣，自主學(xué)習(xí)的能力非常重要。這樣，便于挖掘他們自身的潛力，最大程度的培養(yǎng)出創(chuàng)新意識和創(chuàng)新拓展能力。學(xué)生無論何時(shí)都是學(xué)習(xí)的主體，教師應(yīng)注重學(xué)生自學(xué)能力的培養(yǎng)。但是主體性的課堂教學(xué)是師生共同參與，生生相互交流的多邊活動(dòng)。和諧融洽的師生關(guān)系，能使課堂更生動(dòng)活潑，更利于學(xué)生的主動(dòng)參與。在具體教學(xué)中，教師應(yīng)該運(yùn)用多種方法多種途徑，激勵(lì)全體學(xué)生的主動(dòng)參與，銳意創(chuàng)新。教師在備課時(shí)也要備好學(xué)生，預(yù)設(shè)探討的各種問題和各種情況的發(fā)生及其應(yīng)變之策。當(dāng)然，在課堂上也應(yīng)該注重學(xué)生間的合作探究，并且要注意到個(gè)體之間的差異。教師可以在這方面做好規(guī)劃安排。1.學(xué)生的個(gè)性和共性要明確。先抓共性，譬如，在《牛津初中英語》(FunwithEnglish)(以下例子都來自于牛津版)8AUnit1Friends的Reading“BestFriends”的教學(xué)中，在詞組理解、語意概括、朋友特征描述方面存在困難。那么，教師在教學(xué)過程中可以根據(jù)這些實(shí)際問題予以分類組建群體，以便更好地運(yùn)用教學(xué)策略，完成對學(xué)習(xí)問題的探討。2.合理組合學(xué)生小組，以形成屬于自己的學(xué)習(xí)興趣小組。小組之間的力量是均衡的，好中差是搭配的，這樣可以更好地自主學(xué)習(xí)，更好地深入探討，從而培養(yǎng)質(zhì)疑探究和創(chuàng)新的能力。3.營造良好的學(xué)習(xí)氛圍，組間的學(xué)習(xí)探究應(yīng)該是基于合作競爭的基礎(chǔ)上，充分激發(fā)學(xué)生的主觀能動(dòng)性，促使他們更快的進(jìn)步。例如，在上面提到的教學(xué)中，教師可以先要求學(xué)生首先就自己在學(xué)習(xí)中存在的問題予以互相探究，讓學(xué)生能夠擁有自由的學(xué)習(xí)探究空間和時(shí)間。其次，要求學(xué)生能夠圍繞“Thecharacterofbestfriends”這樣的學(xué)習(xí)重點(diǎn)來予以合作，以便更全面地找出答案。最后，建議學(xué)生以“Mybestfriend”為題進(jìn)行書面表達(dá)，并通過競賽的形式來增強(qiáng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)興趣。四、鼓勵(lì)求異思維，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生發(fā)散意識實(shí)踐證明，最有利于學(xué)生發(fā)散思維、創(chuàng)新思維發(fā)展的是討論和質(zhì)疑。學(xué)生能大膽的問、會(huì)問、想問，教師的工作才算做到位。一方面要引導(dǎo)學(xué)生經(jīng)常換個(gè)角度看問題，以便多角度探索求異，正如透過多棱鏡看事物；另一方面英語教師要鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生大膽想象，保護(hù)學(xué)生的新思維、新見解并堅(jiān)持自己的新見解。這就要求教師要善于挖掘教材中蘊(yùn)含的創(chuàng)造性因素，讓學(xué)生積極運(yùn)用所學(xué)的知識，大膽進(jìn)行發(fā)散創(chuàng)造。創(chuàng)造各種質(zhì)疑的機(jī)會(huì)。比如在教過去進(jìn)行時(shí)時(shí)，出示一副簡筆畫：一位學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)，旁邊爸爸在看報(bào)。在出示圖時(shí)可以只展示爸爸的形象而遮住學(xué)生的畫面。問學(xué)生：“Whatwasthechilddoingwhenhisfatherwasreadinganewspaper?”此時(shí)學(xué)生就會(huì)創(chuàng)新回答，從而給他們提供了發(fā)散思維的機(jī)會(huì)。在英語教學(xué)中，老師要注意問題的表述方式、提出方式，盡量通俗易懂又新穎別致、并能引起學(xué)生共鳴。提問后要給學(xué)生留出足夠的獨(dú)立思考時(shí)間，學(xué)生交流探討的時(shí)間，以使思維訓(xùn)練效果最大化。當(dāng)然，也可以讓學(xué)生利用所學(xué)的知識，自由地求異發(fā)散、編寫新的內(nèi)容。這樣的訓(xùn)練可以在課后或者課外小組活動(dòng)時(shí)間。比如學(xué)了新課后，黑板上寫幾個(gè)單詞，讓學(xué)生想象新情節(jié)、編寫新內(nèi)容。給學(xué)生充分討論的機(jī)會(huì)，學(xué)生相互啟發(fā)、相互交流，從而靈活運(yùn)用語言知識。在這樣一個(gè)活動(dòng)中，學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)興趣得到了最大限度的激發(fā)，學(xué)生的創(chuàng)新意識和能力得到最大限度的培養(yǎng)。創(chuàng)新教育是一個(gè)系統(tǒng)工程，作為教師，在整個(gè)教學(xué)活動(dòng)中不能超越學(xué)生的主體地位，要本著開發(fā)學(xué)生潛能、培養(yǎng)學(xué)生創(chuàng)新意識的理念安排教學(xué)活動(dòng)，充分利用多種形式對學(xué)生進(jìn)行有效的思維方式訓(xùn)練。整個(gè)過程，教師都應(yīng)該放手讓學(xué)生參與、自主合作探究，大膽發(fā)表自己的見解，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的想象能力、發(fā)現(xiàn)能力、探索能力和知識遷移能力。教學(xué)無止境，我們只有敢于探索教學(xué)新形式、新方法，著眼于學(xué)生未來，才能走出一條培養(yǎng)學(xué)生創(chuàng)新精神的路來。團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理團(tuán)隊(duì)與小組管理Chapter91Chapter9

WorkTeam&Groups

StrategiesforSuccessfulTeamsChapter9

WorkTeam&Groups

2Groups&TeamsGroup-twoormorepeoplewithcommoninterestsorobjectives

Team-asmallnumberofpeoplewithcomplementaryskillswhoarecommittedtoacommonmission,performancegoals,andapproachforwhichtheyholdthemselvesmutuallyaccountableGroups&TeamsGroup-twoorm3CharacteristicsofaWell-Functioning,EffectiveGroupRelaxed,comfortable,informalatmosphereTaskwellunderstood&acceptedConsensusdecisionmakingPeopleexpressfeelings&ideasConflict&disagreementcenteraroundideasormethodsClearassignmentsmade&acceptedMemberslistenwell&participateGroupawareofitsoperation&functionCharacteristicsofaWell-Func4GroupBehaviorNormsofbehavior-thestandardsthataworkgroupusestoevaluatethebehaviorofitsmembersGroupcohesion-the“interpersonalglue”thatmakesmembersofagroupsticktogetherSocialloafing-thefailureofagroupmembertocontributepersonaltime,effort,thoughts,orotherresourcestothegroupLossofindividuality-asocialprocessinwhichindividualgroupmembersloseself-awareness&itsaccompanyingsenseofaccountability,inhibition,andresponsibilityforindividualbehaviorGroupBehaviorNormsofbehavio5GroupFormationFormalgroups-officialorassignedgroupsgatheredtoperformvarioustasksneedethnic,gender,cultural,andinterpersonaldiversityneedprofessionalandgeographicaldiversityInformalgroups-unofficialoremergentgroupsthatevolveintheworksettingtogratifyavarietyofmemberneedsnotmetbyformalgroupsGroupFormationFormalgroups-6StagesofGroupFormationMutualacceptanceFocusisontheinterpersonalrelationsamongthemembersDecisionmakingFocusisondecisionmakingactivitiesrelatedtotasksMotivation&commitmentFocusonself-andgroup-motivation,execution,achievementControl&sanctionsFocusoneffective,efficientunitStagesofGroupFormationMutua7JoiningGroupsSecurityStatusSelf-EsteemAffiliationPowerGoalAchievementJoiningGroupsSecurity8Prestage1StageIFormingStageIIStormingStageIIINormingStageIVPerformingStageVAdjourningStagesofGroupDevelopmentPrestage1StageIStageIIStage9GroupBehaviorModel

ExternalConditionsImposedontheGroupGroupMemberResourcesGroupStructureGroupProcessGroupTaskPerformanceandSatisfactionGroupBehaviorModel

External10ExternalConditionsImposedontheGroupOrganizationalStrategyAuthorityStructuresFormalRegulationsOrganizationalResourcesPersonnelSelectionsProcessOrganizationalCulturePhysicalWorkSettingExternalConditionsImposedon11GroupLeadersDepartmentManagerSupervisorsForemanProjectLeadersTaskForceHeadChairpersonChiefExecutiveOfficer(CEO)GroupLeadersDepartmentManage12GroupRolesDefinition:Setofexpectedbehaviorpattern,attributedtosomeoneoccupyingagivenpositioninasocialunitRoleIdentityRolePerceptionRoleExpectationsRoleConflictGroupRolesDefinition:13TypesofTeamsProblemsolving-qualitycircleSelf-managedworkteams-mayresultinreductionofmanagerialpositionsCross-functional-samelevelbutdifferentworkareasTypesofTeamsProblemsolving14?Cross-functionalProblem-SolvingSelf-managedTypesofTeams?Cross-functionalProblem-Solvi15WorkGroupsWorkTeamsShareInformationNeutral(sometimesNegative)IndividualRandom&VariedCollectivePerformancePositiveIndividual&MutualComplementaryGoalSynergyAccountabilitySkillsComparingWork

GroupsandWorkTeamsWorkGroupsWorkTeamsShareInf16GroupsPassThroughTask-OrientedandRelationship-OrientedStages.SomeGroupsGetStuckatCertainStagesandBecomeDysfunctionalOrientationtoTaskTestingandDependenceIntragroupConflictEmotionalResponsetotheDemandsoftheTaskOpenExchangeofRelevantInformationEmergenceofaSolutionDevelopmentofGroupCohesionFunctionalRolesEmergeDissolutionofGroupSTAGE1Orientation(Forming)STAGE5Termination(Adjourning)STAGE2Redefinition(Storming)STAGE3Coordination(Norming)STAGE4Formalization(Performing)GroupsPassThroughTask-Orien17GroupsChangeTheirWaysofWorkingatMidstream,FocusingMoreClearlyonTheirGoalandBecomingMoreEffectivePROJECTSTARTSTRANSITIONPROJECTDEADLINEPerformOriginalBehaviorsDropOldBehaviors

PerformNew,MoreEffectiveBehaviors0%50%100%TIMEEXPENDEDGroupsChangeTheirWaysofWo18ManagersShouldConsiderSixFactorsinChoosingGrouporIndividualDecisionMakingFactorGroupIndividualTypeofproblemortaskAcceptanceofdecisionQualityofthesolutionCharacteristicsofindividualsWhendiverseknowledgeandskillsarerequiredWhenacceptancebygroupmembersisvaluedWhentheinputofseveralgroupmemberscanim-provethesolutionWhengroupmembershaveexperiencedworkingtogetherWhenefficiencyisdesiredWhenacceptanceisnotimportantWhena“bestmember”canbeidentifiedWhenindividualscannotcollaborateManagersShouldConsiderSixF19ManagersShouldConsiderSixFactorsinChoosingGrouporIndividualDecisionMaking(Cont.)FactorGroupIndividualOrganizationalcultureAmountoftimeavailableWhentheculturesupportsgroupproblemsolvingWhenrelativelymoretimeisavailableWhencultureiscompetitiveWhenrelativelylittletimeisavailableTable6-1bManagersShouldConsiderSixF20Cohesiveness&ProductivityHighlycohesivegroupsaregenerallymoreproductiveCohesivenessreducestensionandprovidesasupportiveenvironmentGroupnormsplayanimportantroleincohesivenessCohesiveness&ProductivityHig21SettingStandardsMissionValuesLogisticalArrangementsDecisionMakingConflictGroupmembershelptodevelop,follow,andenforcetherules,policies,andproceduresofthegroup.Suchrulesmayrangefromsimpleones,likebeginningontime,tomorecomplexpolicies,suchasprocedurestoarriveatconsensus.SettingStandardsMissionGroup22GroupCohesivenessTimeSpentTogetherSeverityofInitiationGroupSizeExternalThreatsPreviousSuccessesGroupCohesivenessTimeSpentT23GroupthinkGroupthink24IrvingJanis’ModelAntecedentConditions+CohesivenessGroupthinkSymptoms

GroupthinkSymptomsLowProbabilityofSuccessIrvingJanis’ModelAntecedent25GroupthinkCharacteristicsPowerfulSocialPressuresConcurrenceSeekingDehumanizingSolutionsSuppressionofDeviantThoughtsStressGroupthinkCharacteristicsPowe26ManagersShouldAvoidGroupthinkinMakingDecisionsWithGroupsSymptomDescriptionInvulnerabilityRationalizationMoralityStereotypingPressureMembersfeeltheyaresafeandprotectedfromdangers,ostracism,orineffectiveaction.Membersignorewarningsbyrationalizingtheirownorothers’behavior.Membersbelievetheiractionsareinherentlymoralandethical.Membersviewopponentsastrulyevilorstupidandthusunworthyoforincompetentatnegotiationsarounddifferencesinbeliefsorpositions.Memberspressureallindividualsinthegrouptoconformtothegroup’sdecision;theyallownoquestioningorarguingofalternatives.ManagersShouldAvoidGroupthi27ManagersShouldAvoidGroupthinkinMakingDecisionsWithGroups(Cont.)SymptomDescriptionSelf-censorshipUnanimity“Mindguarding”Membersdonotquestionthegroup’sdecision.Membersperceivethateveryoneinthegrouphasthesameview.Membersmaykeepadverseinformationfromothermembersthatmightruintheirperceptionsofconsensusandtheeffectivedecision.Table6-2bManagersShouldAvoidGroupthi28MajorChangesinLeadershipOccurasTeamsBecomeSelf-DirectedSTAGE1STAGE2STAGE3STAGE4STAGE5Start-UpSateofConfusionLeader-CenteredTeamsTightlyFormedTeamsSelf-DirectedTeamsMajorChangesinLeadershipOc29MangersCanUseThreePointsofLeveragetoEnhanceGroupTaskPerformancePointsofLeverageProcessCriteriaofEffectivenessGroupStructureOrganizationalContextCoachingandConsultationAmpleeffortSufficientknowl-edgeandskillMotivationalstruc-tureofgrouptaskGroupcompositionOrganizationalrewardsystemOrganizationaleducationsystemRemedyingcoor-dinationproblemsandbuildinggroupcommitmentRemedyinginap-propriate“weight-ing”ofmemberinputsandfoster-ingcross-trainingMangersCanUseThreePointso30MangersCanUseThreePointsofLeveragetoEnhanceGroupTaskPerformance(Cont.)PointsofLeverageProcessCriteriaofEffectivenessGroupStructureOrganizationalContextCoachingandConsultationTask-appropriateperformancestrategiesGroupnormsthatregulatememberbehaviorandfosterscanningandplan-ningOrganizationalinformationsystemRemedyingimple-mentationprob-lemsandfosteringcreativityinstrat-egydeploymentTable6-3bMangersCanUseThreePointso31DiverseTeamsOfferBothAdvantagesandDisadvantagesintheWorkplaceAdvantagesDisadvantagesIncreasednumberofperspectivesMultipleinterpretationslikelyGreateropennesstonewideasIncreasedflexibilityIncreasedcreativityImprovedproblemsolvingImprovedunderstandingofforeignemployeesorcustomersIncreasedambiguityIncreasedcomplexityIncreasedconfusionIncreasedmistrustPotentialmiscommunicationDifficultyinreachingagreementsDifficultyinreconcilingdiverseperspectivesDifficultyinreachingconsensusDecreasedgroupcohesionTable6-4DiverseTeamsOfferBothAdvan32DifferencesthatInfluencePerceptions,Which,inTurn,InfluenceIntergoupRelationsATTITUDINALSETSCompetitiveCooperativeSTATUSDIFFERENCESPERCEPTIONSINTERGROUPRELATIONSORIENTATIONGoalsTimeSocialDifferencesthatInfluencePer33RelationsofTasks&ConflictINDEPENDENCEDEPENDENCEINTERDEPENDENCETASKBTASKBTASKBTASKATASKATASKARelationsofTasks&ConflictI34MangersShouldBewareofTheseTypesofNegotiators,WhoDeliberatelyChooseaStyleThatUsesTheseParticularTacticsTypeMethodTheaggressive-openernegotiatorThelong-pausenegotiatorThemockingnegotiatorDiscomforttheothersidebymakingcuttingremarksabouttheirpreviousperformance,theirnumbers,theirunreasonableness,oranythingthatcanbeusedtoinsinuatethattheoppositionishardlyworthspeakingto.Listentotheothersidebutdonotanswertheirprop-ositionsimmediatelybutratherappeartogivethemconsiderablethoughtwiththeresultthatlongsilencesensueforthepurposeofgettingtheothertorevealasmuchoftheircaseaspossiblewithoutrevealingyourown.Mockandsneeratyouropposition’sproposalstogettheothersideso“uptight”thattheysaysomethingthattheywillregretlater.MangersShouldBewareofThese35(Cont.)TypeMethodTheinterrogatorThecloak-of-reason-ablenessnegotiatorThedivide-and-conquernegotiatorMeetallproposalswithsearching,proddingquestionsthatarecouchedinsuchawaythattheoppositionfeelsthattheyhavenotthoroughlydonetheirhome-work.Challengeanyanswersinaconfrontingmannerandasktheoppositiontoexplainfurtherwhattheymean.Appeartobeagreeableandhelpfulwhilemakingimpossibledemandsforthepurposeofwinningthefriendshipandconfidenceoftheopposition.Producedissensionamongtheoppositionsothattheyhavetopaymoreattentiontotheirowninternaldis-agreementsratherthanthedisagreementswithyourside.Allywithonememberoftheteamandtrytoplayhimorheroffagainsttheothermembersoftheteam.(Cont.)TypeMethodTheinterroga36(Cont.)TypeMethodTheBillyBunternegotiatorPretendtobeparticularlydenseand,bysodoing,exasperatetheoppositioninhopsthatatleastonememberoftheopposingteamwillrevealinformationashetriestofindincreasinglysimplewaystodescribeproposals,witheachproposalbeingelaboratedandamplifiedsothatBillyBuntercanunderstandit.(Cont.)TypeMethodTheBillyBun37FourCategoriesofRolesGroupTaskRoles:roleswhichfacilitatetheselectionanddefinitionofacommonproblemandsolution.GroupBuildingandMaintenance:roleswhichincreasethefunctioningofthegroupasagroup.IndividualRoles:roleswhichareorientedtowardthesatisfactionofindividual’sneeds.CreativeRoles:roleswhichinvolveusingcreativitytoidentifypossiblesolutions.FourCategoriesofRolesGroup38GroupTaskRolesGroupTaskRoles39TheInitiator-ContributorSuggestsorproposesnewideasmayincludethesuggestion:foranewgroupanewwaytoviewaproblemanewwaytoaddressaproblemwithinthegroupanewprocedureforthegroupanewwaytoorganizethegroupTheInitiator-ContributorSugg40TheInformationSeekerSeeksclarificationofsuggestionsmadeintermsoftheirfactualadequacy,forauthoritativeinformationandfacetspertinenttotheproblembeingdiscussed.TheInformationSeekerSeekscl41TheOpinionSeekerAsksnotprimarilyforthefactsofthecasebutforaclarificationofthevaluespertinenttowhatthegroupisundertakingorofvaluesinvolvedinasuggestionmadeorinalternativesuggestions.TheOpinionSeekerAsksnotpr42TheInformationGiverOffersfactsorgeneralizationswhichare“authoritative”orrelateshisownexperiencepertinentlytothegroupproblem.TheInformationGiverOffersfa43TheOpinionGiverStateshis/herbelieforopinionpertinentlytoasuggestionmadeortoalternativesuggestions.Theemphasisisonhis/herproposalofwhatshouldbecomethegroup’sviewofpertinentvalues,notprimarilyuponrelevantfactsorinformation.TheOpinionGiverStateshis/he44TheCoordinatorShowsorclarifiestherelationshipsamongvariousideasandsuggestionsTriestopullideasandsuggestionstogetherTriestocoordinatetheactivitiesofvariousmembersTheCoordinatorShowsorclarif45TheEvaluator-CriticSubjectstheaccomplishmentsofthegrouptosomestandardorsetofstandardsofgroupfunctioninginthecontextofthegrouptask.Myevaluatethe“practicality”,“l(fā)ogic”,“Facts”,or“procedures”TheEvaluator-CriticSubjects46TheEnergizerProdsthegrouptoactionordecision.Attemptstostimulateorarousethegrouptogreaterorhigherqualitywork.TheEnergizerProdsthegroupt47TheRecorderWritesdownsuggestions.Makesarecordofgroupdecisions(maybedownviamemory).Therecorderroleisthe“groupmemory.”TheRecorderWritesdownsugges48GroupBuildingandMaintenanceRolesGroupBuildingandMaintenance49TheEncouragerPraises,agreeswithandacceptsthecontributionsofothers.Indicateswarmth,solidarityinattitudetowardothers.Offerscommendationandpraiseinvariouswaysandindicatesacceptanceofothers,TheEncouragerPraises,agrees50TheHarmonizerMediatesthedifferencesbetweenmembersAttemptstoreconciledisagreements.Relievestensioninconflictsituations.TheHarmonizerMediatesthedif51TheCompromiserOperatesfromwithinaconflictinwhichhis/herideasorpositionisinvolved.Mayoffercompromisebyyieldingstatus,admittingerror,orbycoming“halfway”inmeetinganother.TheCompromiserOperatesfromw52TheGate-Keeper&ExpediterAttemptstokeepcommunicationopenbyfacilitatingparticipationofothers.Proposesregulationoftheflowofcommunication.TheGate-Keeper&ExpediterAtt53TheFollowerGoesalongwiththemovementofthegroup.Passivelyacceptstheideasofothers.Servesasanaudienceforothersinthegroupaswellasforgroupdiscussionanddecision.TheFollowerGoesalongwithth54Attemptsbyindividualstosatisfypersonalneeds.Numeroustypes-fromSociologyandPsychology.IndividualRolesAttemptsbyindividualstosat55TheMonopolistDef:Onewhochattersonincessantlyduetoanxietywhensilent.Effect:Groupgetsconcerned,thenfrustratedandangry.Maybeafraidtoconfrontbecausethentheymustfillthevoid.TheMonopolistDef:Onewhocha56Help-RejectingComplainerDef.:requestshelpthanrejects;takesproblemininsolvabilityofproblems;blamesauthority,conflictedaboutdependencyfeelinghelplessanddistrusting.Effects:seenasgreedyanduserofgroupenergy;membersbecomebored,confused,irritatedandfrustrated.Help-RejectingComplainerDef.:57Self-RighteousMoralistDef.:strongneedtoberight.Demonstratessuperiorityviapoiseandunconcernedaboutbeingliked.Deepunderlyingshame.Effect:mobilizessomuchresentmentthatmaybeforcedoutofthegroup.Self-RighteousMoralistDef.:s58CreativeGroupRolesCreativeGroupRoles59IdeaGeneratorLookfornewwaystodothings.Tendtofocusonlyonideasandconcepts.Areresultdriven.IdeaGeneratorLookfornewway60DesignersSeethebigpicture.Provideguidanceandtools.Defineperformancestandards.Identifyresourcesneededtocompleteprojects.DesignersSeethebigpicture.61PromotersVisualizeendresult.Optimistic.Promoteideasandgivemomentum.PromotersVisualizeendresult.62ManagersCanUseThisChecklisttoDiagnosetheRolesPlayedbyEachTeamMemberTASKORIENTEDMAINTENANCEINDIVIDUALAgendaSetterAnalyzerCoordinatorEvaluatorInformationGiverInformationSeekerIntuitorOtherEncouragerFollowerGatekeeperGroupObserverHarmonizerStandardSetterOtherAvoiderBlockerClownDominatorRecognitionSeekerOtherManagersCanUseThisChecklis63GroupNormsAcceptablestandardsofbehavior,thataresharedbythegroup’smembers.FormalNormsexplicitlystatedInformalNormshabitbecomesnormGroupNormsAcceptablestandard64CommonClassesofNormsPerformancerelatedprocessesAppearancefactorsInformalsocialarrangementsAllocationofresourcesCommonClassesofNormsPerform65BehaviorscanbecomeNormsCriticaleventsingroup’shistoryPrimacyCarry-overfrompastsituationsExplicitstatementsmadebyagroupsmemberBehaviorscanbecomeNormsCrit66Reasonsabehaviormightbecomea“norm”Tofacilitatethegroup’ssurvival.Ifitincreasesthepredictabilityofgroupmembers’behaviors.Toreduceembarrassinginterpersonalproblemsforgroupmembers.Toallowmemberstoexpresscentralvaluesofthegroup.Toclarifywhatisdistinctiveaboutthegroup’sidentity.Reasonsabehaviormightbecom67StatusSociallydefinedpositionorrankgiventogroupsorgroupmembersbyothers“Inthestatushierarchyoflife,nothingdoesn’tmatter.”Examples:titles,relationships,pay&benefits,workschedules,officeamenitiesStatusSociallydefinedpositio68GroupSizeGroupswithanoddnumbertendtoperformbetterGroupsof5-7seemtobea“happymedium”SmallergroupsfasterLargergroupsbetterdecisions“socialloafing”GroupSizeGroupswithanoddn69EliminatingSocialLoafingMakeeachperformeridentifiable.PublicPostingInterestingWorkRewardsforContributionsPunishmentThreatsEliminatingSocialLoafingMake70SatisfactionisHigherSmallgroupsUniformstatusandnormsamonggroupmembersUsehigherlevelskillsMeaningfulworkSignificanteffectofoutcomesPositivefeedbackWhengroupsexperiencesubstantialautonomySatisfactionisHigherSmallgr71PositiveBehaviorsMaking“I”statementssuchas“Ifeel,”“Ithink,”“Ineed.”Activelylisteningtopromotetwo-waycommunication.Respectingothers’needs,feelings,andrightsbyallowingotherstodisagree.Sharinginformationandexpertiseopenly.PositiveBehaviorsMaking“I”s72NegativeBehaviorsUnwillingnesstosetasidepersonalagendas.Aggressivelyusing“always”or“never”tointimidateothers.Displayinganegativeattitude.Judgingothers.Wantingtobeastarratherthanpartoftheprocess.NegativeBehaviorsUnwillingnes73MatureGroupCharacteristicsPurposeandMissionMaybeassignedormayemergefromthegroupGroupoftenquestions,reexamines,&modifiesmission&purposeMissionconvertedintospecificagenda,cleargoals,&asetofcriticalsuccessfactorsMatureGroupCharacteristicsPu74MatureGroupCharacteristicsBehavioralNorms-well-understoodstandardsofbehaviorwithinagroupFormal&writtenGroundrulesformeetingsInformalbutunderstoodIntra-groupsocializingDresscodesMatureGroupCharacteristicsBe75MatureGroupCharacteristicsGroupcohesion-interpersonalattractionbindinggroupmemberstogetherEnablesgroupstoexerciseeffectivecontroloverthemembersGroupswithhighcohesivenessdemonstratelowertension&anxietydemonstratelessvariationinproductivitydemonstratebettermembersatisfaction,commitment&communicationMatureGroupCharacteristicsGr76Cohesiveness&

Work-RelatedTensionGroupCohesivenessfromlowtohigh7165265571912Numberofgroups“Doesyourworkevermakeyoujumpyornervous?”FromS.E.Seashore,GroupCohesivenessintheIndustrialWorkForce,1954.ResearchconductedbyStanleyE.SeashoreattheInstituteforSocialResearch,UniversityofMichigan.Reprintedbypermission.Cohesiveness&

Work-RelatedT77MatureGroupCharacteristicsStatusstructure-thesetofauthority&taskrelationsamongagroup’smembersHierarchicaloregalitarianOftenleadershipissharedDiver