生物專業(yè)英語第三版蔣悟生編課文翻譯精編版

生物專業(yè)英語第三版蔣悟生編課文翻譯精編版MQSsystemofficeroom【MQS16H-TTMS2A-MQSS8Q8-MQSH16898】InsidetheLivingCell:StructureandFunctionofInternalCellPartsCytoplasm:TheDynamic,MobileFactory細(xì)胞質(zhì)：動力工廠,,,ions,solubleproteins,andothermaterialsneededforcellfunctioning.半流體物質(zhì)組成，并由細(xì)胞膜（原生質(zhì)膜）物質(zhì)。TheNucleus:InformationCentrl

細(xì)胞核：信息中心）Theeukaryoticcellnucleusisthelargestorganelleandhousesthegeneticmaterial(DNA)onchromosomes.(Inprokaryotesthehereditarymaterialisfoundinthenucleoid.)真核細(xì)胞的細(xì)胞核是最大的細(xì)胞器，細(xì)胞核對染色體組有保護(hù)作用（原核細(xì)胞的遺傳物質(zhì)存在于擬核中）。細(xì)胞核含有一或二個核仁，核仁促進(jìn)細(xì)胞分裂。核膜貫穿許多小孔，小分子可以自由通過核膜，而象mRNA和核糖體等大分子必須通過核孔運(yùn)輸。Organelles:SpecializedWorkUnis位）

細(xì)胞器：特殊的功能單Alleukaryoticcellscontainmostofthevariouskindsoforganelles,,theendoplasmicreticulum,theGolgicomplex,vacuoles,lysosomes,mitochondria,andtheplastidsofplantcells.定功能。本節(jié)主要介紹核糖體，內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)，高爾基體系，液泡，溶酶體，線粒體和植物細(xì)胞中的質(zhì)體。,"reading";核糖體的數(shù)量變化從幾百到幾千，核糖體是氨基酸組裝成蛋白質(zhì)的重要場所。完整的核糖體由大亞基和小mRNAmRNA常與內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)有關(guān)。Theendoplasmicreticulum,alacyarrayofmembranoussacs,tubules,andvesicles,maybeeitherrough(RER)orsmooth(SER).,whichisstuddedwithpolysomes,alsoseemstobethesourceofthenuclearenvelopeafteracelldivides.胞膜。SERlackspolysomes;.進(jìn)行分流或運(yùn)輸?shù)郊?xì)胞外。Transportvesiclesmaycarryexportablemoleculesfromtheendoplasmicreticulumtoanothermembranousorganelle,.質(zhì)中的其他場所。子。最典型的液泡存在于植物細(xì)胞中，儲備水，糖以及其它分子。動物中的液泡起吞噬和胞飲作用。Asubsetofvacuolesaretheorganellesknownaslysosomes,whichcontaindigestiveenzymes(packagedinlysosomesintheGolgicomplex).子。消化食物微粒和降解損傷的細(xì)胞殘片。,線粒體是細(xì)胞中化學(xué)產(chǎn)能的場所。另外，植物細(xì)胞中的質(zhì)體在光合作用中利用光能產(chǎn)生碳水化合物，線粒體內(nèi)嵴上提供了很大的表面積并分布著產(chǎn)ATP酶。線粒體自我復(fù)制，并且可能是自由生活的原核生物在進(jìn)化中形成的后代。Therearetwotypesofplastids:leucoplasts,whichlackpigmentsandserveasstoragesitesforstarch,proteins,andoils;andchromoplasts,質(zhì)體有兩種類型：白色體，缺乏色素，是中的基粒稱子座。細(xì)胞骨架）Alleukaryoticcellshaveacytoskeleton,胞骨架，網(wǎng)絡(luò)結(jié)構(gòu)的纖絲充滿了它所能觸及的全部空間并且對細(xì)胞器提供支持作用。細(xì)胞骨架大部分由微絲組成，微絲主要由可收縮的肌動蛋白組成。動植物細(xì)胞的許多種類型細(xì)胞內(nèi)運(yùn)動與肌動蛋白有關(guān)。第二類蛋白是肌球蛋白，它與肌肉細(xì)胞的收縮有關(guān)。細(xì)胞骨架的另一個主要結(jié)構(gòu)成分是微管，由球狀的微管蛋白組成，象腳手架一般維持細(xì)胞的穩(wěn)定形態(tài)。細(xì)胞骨架的中間絲提供了細(xì)胞質(zhì)伸縮動力。機(jī)械酶，例如，肌球蛋白，動力蛋白，驅(qū)動蛋白與微絲，微管相互作用產(chǎn)生動力而引起細(xì)胞運(yùn)動。CellularMovement（細(xì)胞運(yùn)動Althoughthecytoskeletonprovidessomestability 穩(wěn)固tocells,itsmicrotubules英[?maikr?u?tju:bju:l]andfilaments絲狀物andtheirassociatedproteinsenablecellstomovebycreeping爬行orgliding滑動.Suchmovementsrequireasolid固體的substratetowhichthecellcanadhere附著andcanbeguidedbythegeometryd?i??mitri]?幾何形狀[iɡ?zibit]chemotaxis,kem??t?ksis趨藥性theabilitytomovetowardorawayfromthesourceofadiffusing擴(kuò)散chemical.蛋白能使細(xì)胞爬行或滑動。這種運(yùn)動需要固體基質(zhì)依托并通過表面幾何形狀的改變而運(yùn)動。某些細(xì)胞具備趨藥性，即趨向或逃離擴(kuò)散開的化學(xué)源。Certaineukaryoticcellscanswimfreelyinliquidenvironments,propelledbywhiplikecilia[?sili?]纖毛orflagella英[fl??d?el?鞭毛.Bothciliaandflagellahavethesameinternalstructure:ninedoublets(pairsofmicrotubules)arearrangedinaringandextendthelengthoftheciliumorflagellum,基體動力蛋白sidearmsthatextendfromoneofthemicrotubulesofeachdoublet成對的東西.某些真核細(xì)胞能在液體液體中自由運(yùn)動，由纖毛或鞭毛推動。纖毛和鞭毛具有同樣的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)：九個雙微管環(huán)形排到另一側(cè)而引起運(yùn)動。Nutrients,proteins,?mai?usin肌凝蛋白proteinsattachedtoorganelles細(xì)胞器,小器官pushagainstmicrofilamentsarrayed[??rei]展示集合,收集fromtubutinsubunitsnearorganellescalledcentriolesmovethechromosomes.大部分植物細(xì)胞的營養(yǎng)，蛋白質(zhì)和其它物質(zhì)由細(xì)胞質(zhì)流運(yùn)形成的紡錘體微管移向染色體。Glossarycytoplasm（細(xì)）胞質(zhì)Thelivingcontentsofacellboundedexternallybytheplasmalemma,includinganaqueousgroundsubstance(hyaloplasm,cellsap,orcellmatrix)containingorganellesandvariousinclusionsbutexcludingthenucleusandvisiblevacuoles.cytoskeleton細(xì)胞骨架Ofeukaryoticcells,aninternal"skeleton".Itsmicrotubulesandothercomponentsstructurallysupportthecell,.nucleus細(xì)胞核，核(復(fù)數(shù)nuclei)Theorganelleoftheeukaryotecellthatcontainsthechromosomesandhenceultimatelycontrolscellularactivityandinheritancethroughtheactivityofthegeneticmaterial,DNAchromosome染色體,.nucleoidTheDNA-containingareaofaprokaryotecell,analogoustotheeukaryotenucleusbutnotmembranebounded.nucleoli核仁(單數(shù)nucleolus)Nuclearstructurescomposedofcompletedorpartiallycompletedribosomesandthespecificpartsofchromosomesthatcontaintheinfon-nationfortheirconstruction.nuclearenvelope核膜，核被膜Adoublemembrane(twolipidbilayersandassociatedproteins)thatistheoutermostportionofacellnucleus.ribosome核糖體Smallstructurescomposedoftwoproteinandribonucleicacidsubunitsinvolvedintheassemblyofproteinsfromaminoacids.polysome多核糖體Ofproteinsynthesis,severalribosomesalltranslatingthesamemessengerRNAmolecule,oneaftertheother.endoplasmicreticulum內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)Foldedmembranesandtubesthroughouttheeukaryoticcellthatprovidealargesurfaceuponwhichchemicalactivitiestakeplace.Golgicomplex高爾基復(fù)合體Astackofflattened,smooth,membranoussacs;thesiteofsynthesisandpackagingofcertainmoleculesineukaryoticcells.vacuole液泡Storagecontainerwithinthecytoplasmofacellhavingasurroundingmembrane.phagocytosis吞噬作用Theprocessbywhichthecellwrapsaroundaparticleandengulfsit.pinocytosis胞飲作用Theprocessbywhichacellengulfssomemoleculesdissolvedinwaterlysosome溶酶體Aspecializedorganellethatholdsamixtureofhydrolyticenzymes.mitochondrion線粒體(復(fù)數(shù)mitochondria)Amembranousorganelleresemblingasmallbagwithalargerbagresemblingasmallbagwithalargerbaginsidethatisfoldedbackonitself;servesasthesiteofaerobiccellularrespiration.plastid質(zhì)體Anorganellepresentinallplantsexceptbacteria,blue-greenalgae,andfungi;itisenclosedbytwomembranes(theenvelope)andhasvariousfunctionschloroplast葉綠體.stroma基質(zhì)，子座（復(fù)數(shù)stromata）Regionwithinachloroplastthathasnochlorophyll.microfilament微絲，纖絲Long,fiberlikestructuresmadeofproteinandfoundincells,oftenincloseassociationwiththemicrotubules;providestructuralsupportandenablemovement.actin肌動蛋白,actininteractswithanotherprotein,myosin,tobringaboutcontraction.myosin['maiesin]肌球蛋白Aproteinthat,withactin,constitutestheprincipalelementofthecontractileapparatusofmuscle.microtubute微管Small,hollowtubesofproteinthatfunctionthroughoutthecytoplasmtoprovidestructuralsupportandenablemovement.tubulin微管蛋白Aproteinthatisthemajorconstituentofmicrotubules.dynein動力蛋白，動素AgroupofatleastfourdistinctproteinsfoundintheflagellaandmicrotubulesofeukaryoticcellsandpossessingATPaseactivity.chemotaxis趨化性Alocomotorymovementofanorganismorcellinresponseto,anddirectedby,andirectionalstimulus.cilia纖毛Numerousshort,hairlikestructuresprojectingfromthecellsurfacethatenablelocomotion.flagellaflagellum)Long,hairlikestructuresprojectingfromthecellsurfacethatenablelocomotion.basalbody基體Abodyidenticalinstructuretoacentriole,foundalwaysatthebaseofaciliumoreukaryoteflagellum.centriole中心粒Anorganellelocatedclosetothenucleusinmostanimalandlowerplantcellsbutabsentfromprokaryotesandhigherplants.PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesisoccursonlyinthechlorophyllchlorophyll葉綠素-containingcellsofgreenplants,algae藻,andcertainprotists原生生物,,然而cellular細(xì)胞的respiration呼吸ishighlyexergonicandreleasesenergy,photosynthesisrequiresenergyandishighlyendergonic.過程。,calledthelight-dependentreactions,watermoleculesaresplit裂開(oxidized),0

isreleased,在面前,calledlight-2independentreactions,CO2

isreduced(viatheadditionofHatoms).光合作用以二氧化碳和水為原材料并經(jīng)歷兩步化學(xué)反應(yīng)。第一步，稱光反應(yīng)，水分子分解，氧分子釋放，ATPNADPH要光能的存在。第二步，稱暗反應(yīng)，二氧化碳被還原成碳水化合物，NADPHATP。色素forthelightdependentreactionsareembedded深入的內(nèi)含的inthethylakoid類囊體membrane膜隔膜ofchloroplasts葉綠體.Thedarkreactionstakeplaceinthestroma.基質(zhì)兩步反應(yīng)都發(fā)生在葉綠體中。光反應(yīng)需要的大部分酶和色素包埋在葉綠體的類囊體膜上。暗反應(yīng)發(fā)生在基質(zhì)中。HowLightEnergyReachesPhotosyntheticCel能的）"excess"excitationenergyistransmittedtoothermoleculesandstoredaschemicalenergy.生物分子能捕獲可見光譜中的光能。植物細(xì)胞中葉綠素在不同光波的激活態(tài)。Allphotosyntheticorganismscontainvariousclassesofchlorophyllsandoneormorecarotenoid(accessory同等級的葉綠素和一個或多個類胡蘿卜素（光合作用的輔助色素）。稱作天線復(fù)合體的色素分子群存在于類囊體中。激活色素分子的光能進(jìn)入葉綠素反應(yīng)中心，其直接參與光合作用。大部分光反應(yīng)細(xì)胞器擁有兩套反應(yīng)中心，P680P700電子供體。這些集合體就是大家熟識的光合系統(tǒng)Ⅰ和光合系統(tǒng)Ⅱ。TheLight-DependentReaction:ConvertingSolarEnergyintoChemical-BondEnergy光反應(yīng)：光能轉(zhuǎn)化成化學(xué)鍵能Ⅱ.Inthisinitialeventwatermoleculesarecleaved,oxygenisreleased,光反應(yīng)的光系統(tǒng)將光能轉(zhuǎn)化成化學(xué)復(fù)合物ATPNADPH激活光系統(tǒng)Ⅱ的光反應(yīng)中心時，通過一系列的氧化還原反應(yīng)實(shí)現(xiàn)能量的傳遞。反應(yīng)開始時，水被分解，氧被釋放并提供電子。電子首先傳42個ATP。最后一個受體存在于光反應(yīng)系統(tǒng)Ⅰ的反應(yīng)中心里。此處光子激活電子，電子傳遞給鐵氧還蛋白。鐵氧還蛋白再氧NADP+NADPHATPNADPH反應(yīng)。;plantsalsoderiveadditionalATPthroughcyclicphotophosphorylation,inwhichsomeelectronsareshuntedbackthroughtheelectrontransportchainbetweenphotosystemsⅡandⅠ.ATPⅡ流經(jīng)光合系統(tǒng)Ⅰ的電子路徑稱非循環(huán)式光合磷酸化；植物通過循環(huán)式光合磷酸化獲得額外的ATP，一些電子在光合系統(tǒng)Ⅰ和Ⅱ之間的電子傳遞鏈中回流。TheLight-IndependentReactions:BuildingCarbohydrates暗反應(yīng)：碳水化合物的形成Inthelight-independentreactionsofphotosynthesis,whicharedrivenbyATPandNADPH,由ATP和NADPH驅(qū)動的暗反應(yīng)中，二氧化碳轉(zhuǎn)化成碳水化合化酶催化。Oxygen:AnInhibitorofphotosynthess氧：光合作用的抑制因子）Highlevelsofoxygeninplantcellscandisruptphotosynthesisandcanalsocausephotorespiration-aninefficientfunofthedarkreactionsinwhich02

isfixedratherthanC0andnocarbohydrateisproduced.2ReprievefromPhotorespiration:Thathway4MostplantsareC

plants;theyexperiencedecreasedcarbohydratepro3ductionunderhot,,however,大部分植物是碳3植物，在高溫干旱條4課后作業(yè)：第一篇閱讀材料答案：1B,2A,3A,4D,5C,6cGlossarlight-dependentreactions光反應(yīng)-Thefirststageinphotosynthesis,'senergypasstheenergytohigh-energycarrierssuchasATPorNADPH,whereitisstoredinchemicalbonds.light-independentreactions暗反應(yīng)Thesecondstageofphotosynthesis,alsocalledtheCalvin-Bensoncycle,,carbonisfixedandcarbohydratesareformed.chloroplast葉綠體.absorptionspectrum吸收光譜，吸收譜Thespectrumobtainedwhenradiation(light,ultravioletradiation,etc.)fromasourcegivingacontinuousspectrumispassedthroughasubstance.Calvin-Bensoncycle卡爾文·本森循環(huán)Cyclicreactionsthatarethe"synthesis",RUBP,orsomeothercompoundtowhichcarbonhasbeenaffixed,.carotenoid類胡蘿卜素Light-sensitive,,orange,andyellow.chlorophyll葉綠素Thegreensubstanceofplantsbywhichphotosynthesisisaccomplished;itisusuallylocalizedinintracellularorganellescalledchloroplasts.cyclicphotophosphorylation環(huán)形光合磷酸化（作用）Cyclicphotophosphorylationiscoupledtocyclicelectronflow,inwhichATPistheonlyproduct.Cplant三碳植物3.C4plant四碳植物Aplantsuchascorninwhichthelightindependentreactionsofphotosynthesisstarwithafour-carboncompound.noncyclicphotophosphorylation非環(huán)形光合磷酸化作用Noncyclicphotophosphorylationiscoupledtononcyclicelectronflow,theelectronsbeingusedtoreduceNADP+aswellastomakeATP.photon光子Aparticlethathaszeromassorchargeandunitspin,thequantumoftheelectromagneticfieldandcarrieroftheelectromagneticforce.photophosphorylation光合磷酸化作用ThesynthesisofATPfromphosphateandADPduringphotosynthesis,usinglightenergy.photorespiration光呼吸Alight-dependenttypeofrespirationthatoccursinmostphotosyntheticplantsanddiffersfromnormal(ordark)respiration.photosynthesis光合作用Thesynthesisoforganiccompoundsbyreductionofcarbondioxideusinglightenergyabsorbedbychorophyll.photosystem光合系統(tǒng);photosystemⅡ(RUBP)核酮糖二磷酸AcompoundwithabackboneoffivecarbonatomsthatisrequiredforcarbonfixationintheCalvin-Bensoncycleofphotosynthesis.thylakoid類囊體Oneofanumberofflattenedfluid-filledsacsthatformthephotosyntheticlamellarsystemofchloroplasts,photosyntheticbacteria,andblue-greenalgae.CellularReproduction:MitosisandMeiosisTheNucleusandChromosomes細(xì)胞核是貯藏遺傳信息的主要場所。DNADNADNA體致密的超螺旋狀態(tài)我們稱染色體組。除了性染色體外，大多數(shù)細(xì)胞的染色體組成對出現(xiàn)，稱同源染色體對。非性染色體稱常染色體。生物細(xì)胞含有兩套父母本染色體的稱二倍體；含有單套染色體的稱單倍體。TheCellCycleThecellcycleisaregularsequenceinwhichthecellgrows,preparesfordivision,anddividestoformtwodaughtercells,2胞再循環(huán)。此循環(huán)使得單細(xì)胞永生。多細(xì)胞生物中的許多細(xì)胞，包括動物肌肉和神經(jīng)細(xì)胞，要么降低循環(huán)速度，要么同時分裂。,theperiodofnormalmetabolism;Sphase,duringwhichnormalsynthesisofbiologicalmoleculescontinues,DNAisreplicated,andhistonesaresynthesized;andG

,,S,,theperiodofmitosis,,alongwithex2ternalstimulatorsandinhibitorssuchaschalones.4G1

,正常新陳代謝；S期,正常新陳代謝同時，DNA復(fù)制，組蛋白合成；G2

期，短期的新陳代謝和少許生長。G1

,S,和G2

稱分裂間期。最后是M期，有絲分裂期，復(fù)制的染色體組濃縮，移動并細(xì)胞分裂。據(jù)稱是染色質(zhì)控制了細(xì)胞循環(huán)，伴隨外部激活因子和抑制因子如抑素。Mitosis:PartitioningtheHereditaryMaterial前期中期begins,thecondensed濃縮的chromosomesbecomeassociatedwiththespindle紡錘體.Eventuallythechromosomesbecomearrangedinaplane(calledthemetaphaseplate),duringanaphase后期 ,thetwosisterchromatidsofeachchromosomesplit,末期nuclearenvelopes 包膜begintoformaroundeachsetofchromosomes,anddivisionofthecytoplasmtakesplace.4個染色單體通過著絲粒連接在一起。在分裂前期后期和分裂中期前期，濃縮的染色體與紡錘體相連，最后以正確的角度排列在赤道板期，在每套染色體周圍形成核膜，細(xì)胞質(zhì)發(fā)生分裂。Asmitosisproceeds,thespindlemicrotubulesplayacrucialroleinensuringthatbothpairedandseparatedchromatids染色單體著絲粒fibers,extendoutwardfromthespindlepolestostructuresonthechromosomescalledkinetochores 著 粒.Duringanaphasethefibersbegintoshorten,andthechromatidsbegintomoveapart.在有絲分裂過程中，是紡錘體微管確保了染色單體在適當(dāng)時間以正確方向進(jìn)行分離。紡錘體微管由兩極向赤道板延伸。在分裂前維開始變短，染色單體分離。中心粒,whileinplantandfungal真菌cellsspindleformationisassociatedwithreionscalledmicrotubuleorganizingcenters.物和真菌細(xì)胞中，紡錘體與微管組織中心的離子相連。Cytokinesis:PartitioningtheCytoplasm胞質(zhì)分裂：細(xì)胞質(zhì)分離Thedivisionofthecellcytoplasmattheendofmitosisiscalledcytokinesis 細(xì)胞漿移動.Inanimalcellsittakesplaceasaringofactinfilamentscontracts使縮短合同契約aroundthecellequator赤道,pinching收聚,whicharebounded有限制的byacellwall,存放堆積intheregionofthecellplate.植物細(xì)胞中，在赤道板形成新的細(xì)胞板。Meiosis:TheBasisofSexualReproductionMeiosis 減 isaspecialformofcelldivisionthattakesplaceinthereproductive生殖,ittakesplaceafterDNAreplicationhasoccurredandinvolvestwosequential 連 續(xù) nucleardivisions(meiosisIandmeiosisⅡ).Thesedivisionsresultinfourdaughtercells,因此,thehomologous同源的chromosomesdistributed分布todifferentprogeny后裔cellsarenotidentical同樣的.減數(shù)分裂是性細(xì)胞分裂的特殊形式。如有絲分裂，它也是發(fā)生在DNA4一半的染色體數(shù)。同源chromosomesundergo經(jīng)歷sy-napsis聯(lián)會,orpairing,whichisbroughtaboutbyabridgingstructureofproteinsandRNAcalledthesynaptonemal聯(lián)會絲的排列onthemetaphase中,however,duringanaphaseIthetwochromatidsofeachchromosomestayjoinedatthecentromere著絲點(diǎn)減半的ofthechromosomenumberinthefourdaughtercellsthatresultfrommeiosis.RNA對形成聯(lián)會復(fù)合體。與有絲分裂不同的是，每組染色體的兩個染色單4胞染色體數(shù)減半。Duringtelophase 末 Inuclearenvelopesenclosethechromosomesinnuclei,andinmostspeciescytokinesis細(xì)胞漿流(thefirstnucleardivision)Ⅱ,inwhichthechromosomesineachdaughtercellagainalign排列著絲粒finallydivide,,.第二次核分裂開始于分裂中期，子細(xì)胞中染色體重新排列在赤道板4Mitosisandmeiosis,respectively分別,遺傳無性的reproductiontheparentorganism生物體givesrisetooffspring后代'ssuccessfulgeneticcomplement遺傳互補(bǔ),requireslittleornospecializationofreproductiveorgans,害突變的機(jī)制。也可以產(chǎn)生新的基因并在種群中蔓延。課后作業(yè)：第一篇閱讀材料答案：1C,2B,3D,4B,5A,6Dmitosis有絲分裂

GlossaryProcessthatresultsinequalandidenticaldistributionofreplicatedchromosomesintotwonewlyformednuclei.meiosis減數(shù)分裂Theprocessbywhichanucleusdividesintofourdaughternuclei,eachcontaininghalfthenumberofchromosomesoftheparentnucleus.histone組蛋白Oneofagroupofsimpleproteinsthathaveahighcontentofthebasicaminoacidsarginineorlysineandarefoundassociatedwithnucleicacidsinthechromatinofeukaryoticcells.nucleosome核小體,togetherwithabout140basepairsofDNAcoiledaroundit.chromatin染色質(zhì),mostoftheproteinbeinghistone.karyotype核型，染色體組型,Theappearanceofthechromosomecomplementofanorganismorcell.homologouspair同源染色體對二倍體Anynucleus,cell,ororganismthatpossessestwicethehaploidnumberofchromosomes.haploid單倍體Anynucleus,cell,ororganismthatpossessesasinglesetofunpairedchromosomes,interphase(cycle)分裂間期（周期）Inacellpreparingtoduplicate,theinterphasestagecandividedintoaperiodofinitialgrowth(G

),aperiodofDNAsynthesis(S),andaseco1ndgrowthperiod(G).2chalone抑素Substancesfoundinmammaliantissuehomogenatesthat,whenappliedtointacttissuecells,inhibitmitosis,particularlyinthepresencphase（分裂）前期Firststageofmitosis,duringwhichindividualchromosomesbecomevisible.chromatidAreplicatedchromosomephysicallyattachedtoanidenticalchromatidatthecentromere.centromere著絲粒Thesmallareaofachromosomethatdoesnotstainwithbasicdyesduringmitosisandmeiosis;atinterphaseitissinglewhiletherestofthechromosomeismadeupoftwochromatids.metaphase（分裂）中期Secondstageinmitosis,duringwhichthechromosomesalignattheequatorialplane.spindle紡錘體Anarrayofmicrotubutesextendingfrompoletopoleandusedinthemovementofchromosomes.metaphaseplateThegroupingofthechromosomesinaplaneattheequatorofthespindleduringthemetaphasestageofmitosis.anaphase分裂后期Thethirdstageofmitosis,duringwhichthecentromeressplitandthechromosomesmovetothepoles.telophase（分裂）末期Laststageinmitosisduringwhichdaughternucleiareformed.cytokinesis胞質(zhì)分裂 Divisionofthecytoplasmofonecellintotwonewcells.cellplate細(xì)胞板Aplantcellstructurethatbeginstoforminthecenterofthecellandproceedstothecellmembrane,resultingincytokinesis.FoundationsofGeneticsEarlyTheoriesofinheritaneeEarlyideasofinheritanceincludedHippocrates',:theyheldthatheritabletraitsofthetwoparentsblend,sothatthedistinctcharacteristicsofeacharelostinoffspring.親代。GregorMendelandtheBirthofGeneticsGregorMendel,anAugustinianmonkinthemonasteryatBrunn,Austria,isknownasthe"fatherofgenetics."Havingbeenexposedtotheoriesoftheparticulatenatureofmatterwhileauniversitystudentandhavingabackgroundinmathematics,.實(shí)遺傳的顆粒性。直到他去世后，他的理論才被理解和接受。Mendel'sClassicExperimentsMendelstudiedgeneticsthroughplant-breedingexperimentswiththegardenpea,aplantspeciesthatisself-fertilizingandbreedstrue(eachoffspringisidenticaltotheparentinthetraitofinterest).Totesttheblendingtheory,,suchasseedcolorandplantheight,presentonlytwo,,andfollowedtheresultsofeachcrossfortwogenerations.72Foreachofthecharactershestudied,(Fominanttorecessivewas3:,,—

)generation,theratioofd2itsphysicalappearanceandproperties-differsfromitsgenotype,.2比為3∶1。只有在每個個體僅擁有兩個研究遺傳單元，并每個單元因型是不同的。旁納特方格可以陳列所有可能的遺傳組合。TheresultsofMendel'sexperimentsondominantandrecessiveinheritancelettoMendel'sfirstlaw對的一個等位基因。減數(shù)分裂期形成配子時兩個等位基因分離。為驗(yàn)證此理論，他做了測交實(shí)驗(yàn)，即基因型未知的植物與純合的隱性基因植物雜交。子代顯性表型可以明確測得雜合基因或純合基因的基因型。Mendel'sIdeasandtheLawofindependentAssortmentMendelalsoperformeddihybridcrosses,,'slawsisincompletedominance,,.雙因子雜合試驗(yàn)，兩個特征是如何相互影響遺傳的。試驗(yàn)結(jié)果產(chǎn)生有影響。，等位基因會繼續(xù)分離。,.1866年，孟德爾在自然史上發(fā)表了他的科學(xué)論文，陳訴了他的觀點(diǎn)。不幸的是，他的研究不被當(dāng)時科學(xué)家接受。在1900年，他的著作再被發(fā)現(xiàn)利用。ChromosomesandMendelianGeneticsSoonafterMendel'sworkwasrediscovered,,',inwhichachromosomepairfailstosegregateduringmeiosis.孟德爾著作被再發(fā)現(xiàn)不久，WalterSutton和TheodorBoveri提出，遺傳單位可能定位在染色體組上。伴性遺傳又導(dǎo)致了不分離現(xiàn)象的發(fā)現(xiàn)，即在減數(shù)分裂中，染色體對不分離。課后作業(yè)：第一篇閱讀材料答案：1C,2C,3A,4A,5B,6BGlossarypangenesis泛生論，泛生說Thetheoryofhereditypostulatingthatgerms,humours,oressencesmigratefromindividualbodycellstothesexorgansandcontributetothegametes.germplasmtheory種質(zhì)學(xué)說Asubstancethoughttobetransmittedinthegametes(germcells).dominant顯性Thememberofapairofallelesthatshowsitseffectinthephenotypewhateverotheralleleispresent.recessive隱形的Thememberofapairofallelesthatdoesnotshowitseffectinthepresenceofanyotherallelicpartner.allele等位基因Alternativeformsofageneforaparticularcharacteristic.,attachedearlobegenesandfreeearlobegenesarealternativeallelesforearshape).gene基因AunitofhereditylocatedonachromosomeandcomposedasequenceofDNAnucleotides.homozygous純合的Adiploidorganismthathastwoidenticalallelesforparticularcharacteristic.heterozygous基因型Thecatalogofgenesofanorganism,whetherornotthesegenesareexpressed.phenotype表型Thephysical,chemical,andpsychologicalexpressionofgenespossessedbyanorganism.PunnettsquareAmethodusedtodeterminetheprobabilitiesofcombinationinazygote.lawofsegregation分裂定律Whengametesareformedbyadiploidorganism,theallelesthatcontrolatraitseparatefromoneanotherintodifferentgametes,retainingtheirindividuality.testcross測交Acrossbetweenaheterozygoteofunknowngenotypeandanindividualhomozygousfortherecessivegenesinquestion.dihybridcross獨(dú)立分配定律，自由組合定律Membersofonegenepairwillseparatefromeachotherindependentlyofthemembersofothergenepairs.incompletedominance不完全顯性Theconditioninwhichtwoallelicgeneshaveadifferenteffectwhentheyaretogetherasaheterozygoteinadiploidcellthaneitherofthemhaveinthehomozygousstatenondisjunction不分離Thefailureofseparationofpairedchromosomesatmetaphase,.DiscoveringtheChemicalNatureoftheGeneGenesCodeforParticularProteinsThefirstscientisttoinvestigatethequestionofhowgenesaffectphenotypewasSirArchibaldGarrod,是第一個研究基因是如何影響表型的科學(xué)家，他對尿黑酸癥的研究揭示了基因與酶之間的關(guān)系。Beadle和Ephrussi在三十年后對果蠅眼睛顏色的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)特殊基因與相關(guān)反應(yīng)的生物合成有關(guān)。接著對面包發(fā)霉粗糙脈孢菌的突變試驗(yàn)得出一個基因一個酶的假說。他們的工作為其他工作者鋪平了道路，即精確地闡明了酶影響了復(fù)雜的新陳代謝途徑。在1949Nucleiacid,originallyisolatedbyJohannMiescherin1871,',MacLeod,在1871年，核酸最初是由JohannMiescher分離成功，并由Feulgen在19001940DNA。四個堿基和磷酸分子分別連接在糖分子上，稱核苷酸。DisagreementoverwhetherDNAcouldcarrycomplexgeneticinformationwasendedintheearly1950sbyMarthaChaseandAlfredHershey,,andnotprotein,isthebearerofgeneticinformation.直到1950年，通過對大腸桿菌實(shí)驗(yàn)發(fā)現(xiàn)，遺傳物質(zhì)是DNA，而不是蛋白質(zhì)。EachDNAnucleotidecontainsafive-carbonsugar,deoxyribose,attachedtooneoffourbases:adenine,guanine,cytosine,,每個核苷酸都含有一個五碳脫氧核糖，分別連接個堿基，即：腺嘌呤，鳥嘌呤，胞嘧啶，胸腺嘧啶。堿基連接糖稱核苷。磷酸鍵形成磷酸骨架。Chargaff’srulesdescribethefactthat(1)theamountofadenineisequaltotheamountofthymineinDNA,withamountofcytosineequaltothatofguanine,and(2)theratiosofAtoTandofCtoGvarywithdifferentspecies.（1）腺嘌呤與胸腺嘧啶，胞嘧啶與鳥嘌呤相等；（2）嘧啶，胞嘧啶與鳥嘌呤的比例隨物種不同而不同。TheResearchRacefortheMolecularStructureofDNAInthelate1940sandearly1950s,researcherslookingforthestructureofDNAdrewuponChargaffsinsight,Levene'sideasonDNAcomponents,,andtheotherwasX-raydiffractionphotosofDNA,showingahelicalstructurewithdistancebetweenthecoils,takenbyFranklinandWilkins.4050DNAChargaff的觀點(diǎn)和,Levene的組成理論以及其他兩個線索。一個是LinusPaulingDNAX-衍射圖片，F(xiàn)ranklinandWilkins,whichalwaysoccurasA-TorG-C,.基于這些信息，Watson和Crick提出了雙螺旋結(jié)構(gòu)模型，成對的核苷酸通過氫鍵相連，遺傳信息就貯藏在堿基對中。HowDNAReplicatesIntheirmodelofDNAstructureandfunction,WatsonandCrickhypothesizedthatDNAreplicatesitselfby"unzipping",DNA進(jìn)行復(fù)制是以拉鏈方式自我復(fù)制，產(chǎn)生的兩個二分體分別為模板生成互補(bǔ)鏈，即半保留復(fù)制。并由Meselson和Stahl驗(yàn)證。'to3'direction(fromthe5'carbonofonesugartothe3'carbonofthenext).Theleadingstrandissynthesizedcontinuously,.(intwodirectionsatonce)fromhundredsorthousandsofpointsoforigin.大腸桿菌復(fù)制開始時形成泡樣復(fù)制叉，鏈生長方向由5′向DNA真核生物復(fù)制與原核生物復(fù)制相似，但有幾百到幾千個復(fù)制原點(diǎn)（原核一般只有一個復(fù)制原點(diǎn)）。課后作業(yè)：第一篇閱讀材料Glossaryone-gene-one-enzymehypothesis一基因一酶假說,thishypothesishasbeenreplacedbytheone-gene-onepolypeptidehypothesis.one-gene-one-polypeptidehypothesis一基因一多肽假說.adenine腺嘌呤ApurinebasethatisanessentialconstituentofthenucleicacidsandalsoofsuchcoenzymesasNADandFAD.guanine鳥嘌呤.cytosine胞嘧啶.thymine胸腺嘧啶.purine嘌呤,whichareconstituentsofnucleicacidsandcoenzymes.pyrimidine嘧啶Aheterocyclicorganiccompound,.nucleoside核苷:cytidine,cytosinedeoxyriboside,thymidine,uridine,adenosine,adeninedeoxyriboside,guanosine,,uridine,adenosine,andguanosineareribosides.X-raydiffractionX射線衍射,includingsomeimportantmacromolecules,.,DNA,haemoglobin,myoglobin.DNAdoublehelix雙螺旋Thethree-dimensionalstructureofdoublestrandedDNA.semiconservativereplication半保留復(fù)制ThemethodofreplicationofDNAinwhichthemoleculedivideslongitudinally,eachhalfbeingconservedandactingasatemplatefortheformationofanewstrand.replicationfork復(fù)制叉ApointatwhichthetwostrandsofaDNAdoublehelixareunwoundandseparatedduringreplication.Okazakifragment岡琦片斷AshortsequenceofDNAthatistheprimaryproductofDNApolymeraseduringDNAreplication.polymeraseDNA聚合酶AnenzymethatbringsnewDNAtriphosphatenucleotidesintopositionforbondingonanotherDNAmolecule.TheOriginandDiversityofLifeAHomeforLife:FormationoftheSolarSystemandPlanetEarthThestoryoflife',inturn,;theplanets,includingtheearth,'ssize,temperature,composition,.生命起源于地球的形成。大爆炸是我們行星形成的開始。太陽在50億年前生成，位于太陽系中心，行星，包括地球，在 46億年前成。地球由多層組成：堅(jiān)硬的地殼，半流體的地幔，一個很大的溶解中心中存在一個堅(jiān)實(shí)的中心。地球的基本特征使生命起源成為可能，包括行星的大小，溫度，組成以及離太陽的距離。當(dāng)前主要假設(shè)認(rèn)為，由非生命的化學(xué)物質(zhì)進(jìn)化過程自發(fā)產(chǎn)生了生命。TheEmergenceoflife:OrganicandBiologicalMoleculesonaPrimitivePlanet,includingthepioneeringworkofMillerandUrey,havesuccessfullyproducedorganicmonomersincludingaminoacids,simplesugars,通過創(chuàng)造出地球早期的自然條件和化學(xué)資源條件，科學(xué)家在實(shí)驗(yàn)室中已經(jīng)獲得了化學(xué)有機(jī)體生命前階段的證據(jù)。這些實(shí)驗(yàn)包括米勒等早期所做工作，成功地產(chǎn)出了有機(jī)單體，包括氨基酸，單糖，核酸堿基。這些單體自發(fā)的連接成多聚體，如類蛋白和核酸，使進(jìn)入生命狀態(tài)成為可能。這些聚合作用可能發(fā)生在泥土或巖石表面。Researchershavefoundthat,whenenergyisavailabletoasystem,,當(dāng)一個系統(tǒng)獲得能量時，可能發(fā)生3的溶液中俄國科學(xué)家獲得了富含小液滴的多聚物，即凝聚物。從氨基酸和水的混合液中Fox,whichcanformspontaneouslyunderconditionsmimickingthoseoftheearlyearth,可能是地球早期形成的第一個貯藏信息的物質(zhì)。在實(shí)驗(yàn)室模擬早期地球自然條件下其可自發(fā)形成。核酶的發(fā)現(xiàn)說明它RNARNA具備類似于性交換的功能。Followingthedevelopmentofalipid-proteinsurfacelayerandreplicatingRNAandDNAinformationalmolecules,theeventsleadingtotheemergenceoflivingcellswouldhaveincludedtheoriginofthegeneticcode;thesequesteringofRNAorDNAintocell-likestructures;andthedevelopmentofmetabolicpathways.接下來脂蛋白表層的形成，RNA的復(fù)制,DNA信息分子的形成，最終導(dǎo)致活細(xì)胞的出現(xiàn)，包括最初的遺傳密碼，RNA或DNA被包裹進(jìn)細(xì)胞樣的結(jié)構(gòu)中；及代謝途徑的建立。TheEarliestCells',,,.能說明活細(xì)胞存在的最古老化石大約有35億年了。最早出現(xiàn)的細(xì)胞可能是厭氧異氧生物，自養(yǎng)生物很久后出現(xiàn)。最早的自養(yǎng)生物自己生產(chǎn)營養(yǎng)并釋放氧氣，這個新陳代謝副產(chǎn)品對后期生命的形成有一個深遠(yuǎn)的影響。臭氧層的出現(xiàn)減少了紫外線的滲透。結(jié)果，細(xì)胞就能夠在淺水區(qū)和陸地上生存了。大氣中氧氣數(shù)量的增加使得需氧細(xì)胞進(jìn)化并產(chǎn)生細(xì)胞呼吸，這預(yù)示著全球碳循環(huán)的開始。最早期的細(xì)胞都是原核生物，直到15億年后，真核細(xì)胞才出現(xiàn)。TheChangingFaceofplanetEarthChangesinlandmasses,theseas,,solidcrustoverahot,semisolidmantleandaninner,';'sorbitandintheoutputofenergybythesun.地幔上大板快地殼的擠壓形成大陸漂移。大陸漂移雕塑了地殼的外Taxonomy:CategorizingtheVarietyoflivingThings行分類的，今天生物學(xué)家大體上使用孤立多產(chǎn)的群體作為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。.的祖先。TheFiveKingdoms:organismsaregroupedintothekingdomsMonera,Protista,Fungi,Plantae,,thekingdomsareprobablynotrueclades.進(jìn)化系統(tǒng)樹是進(jìn)化關(guān)系的圖解表現(xiàn)。教材中使用一個通用的 5具，5課后作業(yè)：第一篇閱讀材料答案：1B,2A,3B,4C,5A,6CGlossaryBigBang地殼ThecrustoftheEarthistheoutershelloftheEarth,definedbyitscompositionandthepropertiesofsomeseismicwaves.mantle地幔ThepartoftheinterioroftheEarthbetweenthecrustandthecore.core核心ThecoreoftheEarthisthatpartlyingbelowthemantle.coacervate團(tuán)聚體，凝聚層Acollectionoforganicmacromoleculessurroundedbywatermoleculesthatarealignedtofon-nasphere.liposome脂質(zhì)體Avesicleformedbythehomogenization(emulsification).ozonelayer臭氧層Alayeroftheatmosphere,about20to50kmabovethesurface,whichcontteinoid類蛋白[質(zhì)]Aproteinlikestructureofbranchedaminoacidchainsthatisthebasicstructureofamicrosphere.continentaldrift大陸漂移Thetheorythatthepresentcontinentsresultfromthebreak-upofalargercontinentandhavemovedindependentlytotheirpresentpositions.binomialsystemofnomenclature雙名法UsestwoLatinnames,genusandspecies,foreachtypeoforganism.genus屬(plural,genera),andmembersofthesamegenusoftenhaveanumberofobviouscharacteristicsincommonbywhichtheycanclearlybeseentoberelated.species物種.family目綱門,oroccasionallyofonlyonclass,withcertainimportantcharacteristicsincommon.phylumphyla),oroccasionallyofonlyoneclass,withcertainimportantcharacteristicsincommon,implyingthatallmembersaredescendedfromacommonancestor.kingdom界Inbiology,amajorcategoryintowhichlivingmaterialisclassified.taxon分類單位，分類群(復(fù)數(shù)taxa)Aunitofclassificationofanyrankinthehierarchicalscale.taxonomy分類學(xué)Thestudyofthetheory,procedure,andrulesofclassificationoforganismsaccordingtotheSimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthemclade進(jìn)化枝，分化單位Inacladisticclassification,organismsareplacedintotaxonomicgroupscalledcladeswhentheysharecharacteristicsthatarethoughttoindicatecommonancestry.Fungi:TheGreatDecomposersCharacteristicsofFungiTheapproximately175175，000團(tuán)細(xì)胞質(zhì)含有多個細(xì)胞核。;,;.很快。生長靠有絲分裂和細(xì)胞質(zhì)的快速產(chǎn)生。真菌的有絲分裂很獨(dú)核體——同一個細(xì)胞質(zhì)中含有不同的細(xì)胞核。Asnonmotileheterotrophs,,,whichdischargesporesintotheair,:(1)dispersalspores,whichareusuallyshort-livedandareproducedinlargenumbersduringactivefungalgrowth;and(2)survivalspores,whichareusuallyproducedinsmallernumbersandatatimeinthelifecyclewhenthefungusisundersomekindofenvironmentalstress.過程由孢子來完成，即真菌的生殖體。孢子可能是在氣生菌絲的中倍體。有兩種主要的孢子：（1）分散的孢子，通常生命期短，數(shù)量大，主要存在于活躍的菌絲生長階段；（2）存活孢子，通常產(chǎn)生很少的數(shù)量，在生存壓力條件下的一種生命循環(huán)。ClassificationoffungiAswithsomeoftheothergroupsyouhavestudied,,theyareclassifiedaccordingtomorphology,methodsofreproduction,,thesingledivisionofthekingdomFungi,Mycota,isdividedintosixprincipalclasses.6ThelowerfungicomprisethegroupsChytridiomycetes,Oomycetes,;,(sometimescalledwatermolds)producemotile,;oomycetesaredistinguishedbytheirlarge,,低級真菌包含壺菌，卵菌綱和接合菌。所有缺乏隔膜的菌絲是通用的多核細(xì)胞的；孢子通過非性方式產(chǎn)生。只有卵菌綱通常有二倍體的營養(yǎng)狀態(tài)。卵菌綱和壺菌在孢子囊中產(chǎn)生能動的帶鞭毛的孢子。在配子囊中產(chǎn)生配子；卵菌綱具有非尋常大的靜止的卵細(xì)胞。實(shí)際上，這兩大群具有不同的特征，生物學(xué)家寧愿把它們動。它們完全是陸生的，一些菌根與某些植物的根形成共生關(guān)系。ThehigherfungiincludetheclassAscomycetes,高級真菌包括子囊括塊菌，酵母和產(chǎn)青霉素菌。MostmembersoftheclassBasidiomycetes—"mushroom",eachbearingfourhaploidbasidiospores,,andinresponsetovaryingenvironmentalinfluences.