語言學(xué)教程大腦和

LanguageandInthelanguagecircle,researcherstraditionallypaymoreattentiontolanguagesystemitselfandlesstothebrainwherelanguageisrepresentedandprocessed.Recentyears,anumberoftechnologicaladvanceshavefacilitatedtheinvestigationofhumanbrainandlanguageprocessing.Definition:Neurolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthestructureofbraininfluenceslanguagelearning,howandinwhichpartsofthelanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouseStructureandfunctionofthehumanFibers:connectsNeurons:arethebasicinformationprocessingunitsofthenervousBrainstem:connectingtothespinalcordandsharedbyalltheanimals,keepsthebodyalivebymaintainingtheessentialfunctionssuchasrespiration,heartrateandmuscleco-ordination.Cerebrum/cerebralcortex:isthedecision-makingorganofthebodyandstorehouseof"memory".ItreceivesmessagesfromalltheorgansandinitiatesallthevoluntaryCerebralhemisphere:eachhemisphereofthehumanbrainisresponsiblefordifferentfunction,andeachhemispherecontrolstheoppositehalfofthebodyintermsofmusclemovementandsensation.Withrespecttohighercognitivefunction,generallythelefthemisphereseemstoexcelinytictasksuchasarithmetic,whereastherighthemisphereexcelintaskswhichrequireanoverallappreciationcomplexpatternssuchastherecognitionoffamiliarfacesandmelodies.Languageinvolvethecoordinationofbothhemispheres.Aboutliteralization,somebelievethatbrainfunctionscanbehighlylocalizedtospecificpartsofthebrain,whereasothersconsiderthebraintofunctionasaunit.However,thereisaconsensusthatthereissomeliteralizationoffunctionsincemanyevidenceshavebeenprovidedbydifferentmethods.Accordingtotheinvestigationitselfandtheexaminationofthebehaviourassociatedwiththebrain,theformerincludesthemethodsof:SAT（SodiunAmytalTest）,CTscanning（ComputerizedAxialomography，includesdichoticlisteningstudiesandsplitbrainAutopsyItisanimportanttoolinunderstandingofthebrain.Thetechniqueisusedtoexaminethebrainafterthepatient'sdeathinordertofindtherelationshipbetweentheareaofbraindamageandthetypeofdisorderthepatientdisplayedwhilealive.Afamousexampleofthistypeofysiswasundertakenin1860,Broca,observedapatient,cannotspeak,butseemedunderstandwhathadbeensaidtohim.Afterhisdeath,Brocaexaminedhisbrain,andfoundseveredamage（lesion）inthelowerreararesoftheleftfrontlobe.ThenheconcludedthatthispartofthefrontlobemustnormallyresponsibleforspeechSAT:Thepatientisaskedtocountoutaloudwhilesodiumamytalisinjectedintoanarterycarringbloodtoonesideofthebrain.Ifthisisthehemisphereusedinspeech,thepatientlosesalltrackofhiscountingandexperiencesseverelanguagedifficultiesforseveralminutes.IfitisthepatientcanresumenormalcountingalmostimmediayaftertheCTscanning:usesanarrowbeamofX-raytocreatebrainimagesthattaketheformofseriesofbrainslices.Itisveryusefulinidentifyingbrainlesionandtumours,thoughtheimageisstatic,thatmakeitusefulinidentifyingbrainlesionandtumours.PET:A3-dimensionalbrainscanthatgivesinformationaboutthefunctionandthestructureofthebrain.Itisanuclearmedicinetestinwhichtissuefunctioncanbeimaged.Damagedtissueshavereducedmetabolicactivit（新陳代謝;therefore,gammaradiatio（伽馬輻射）fromtheseareasisreducedorabsent.Whensubjectsspeak,muchbloodflowstothelefthemisphereofthecortexandtheBroca'sareainparticular.Whensubjectsread,muchbloodflowstotheoccipitallobe,totheangulargyrus.TheseobservationsupporttheviewthatlefthemisphereisprimarilyresponsibleforlanguageandthattherearespecificlanguageareawithintheleftDichoticlisteningstudies:It'satechniqueinwhichstimulieitherlinguisticornon-linguisticarepresentedthroughheadphonestotheleftandrightearstodeterminethelateralizationofvariouscognitiveInthetest,mostsubjectscanreportthewordplayedtotherightmoreclearlythantheoneplayedtotheleftear.Ifdifferenttunesareplayedintoeachearssimultaneously,thesubjectswillidentifythetuneplayedintoleftearbetterthanthatoftherightears.Thisconfirmstheassumptionthatthelefthemisphereisbetteratprocessinglinguisticsignalssuchaswords,numbersandMorsecode.WhereastherighthemisphereisbetteratmelodiesandenvironmentalsoundssuchasbirdSplitbrain（Thecerebralhemisphereareconnectedbythecorpus（胝體）.Ifthecorpuscallosumsevered,thehemispherecan'tcommunicateeachother,TheexperimentsthatinvestigatethateffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognitionarereferredtoascalledSplitbrainstudies.Whenthebrainissplitsurgically,theinformationfromtheleftsideofthebodyisreceivedonlybytherightsideofthebrainandviceverse.Itreferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyvascularproblems,atumour,anaccidentandsoon.Broca'saphasia,Broca'sareaisresponsibleforthearticulationofspeech.Thedamagetothispartofthebraininfrontofthecentral（溝）willcausenon-fluentWernicke'sWernicke'saphasia,fluentaphasia.Damagetopartsoftheleftbehindthecentralbehindthecentralsulcusresultsinatypeofaphasia.fluentaphasianodifficultyinproducingthelanguage.Theycanspeakverywithnormalpronunciationandintonationandcorrectwordorderoftenwithlittlesemanticmeaning.TheyoftenhavegreatdifficultycomprehendingaAcquireddyslexia,damageinandaroundtheangulargyrusoftheparietallobeoftencausestheimpairmentofreadingandwritingability.Phonologicaldyslexia,thepatientseemstohavelosttheabilitytousespelling-to-soundrules.Thepatientcanonlyreadthewordtheyhaveseenbefore.Fortheunknownones,theywilleithersaynothingorthewordtheyaskedtoread.Surfacedyslexia,Thepatientisunabletorecognizewordaswholesbutmustprocessallwordsthroughasetofspelling-to-soundrules.theoppositeofDefinition:isthestudyoflanguageprocessing.Itisconcernedwiththeprocessoflanguagecomprehensionandproduction.Psycholinguistseektodiscoverthenatureofthementalrepresentationsthatservefunctionsoflanguageandcomprehensionandproductionandtheofthecognitiveoperationsandcomputationsthatareemployedwhenunderstandandproducelanguage.PsycholinguisticresearethodsFieldwork:Spoonerisms：isakindofslipsofWhatheintended:YouhavewastedthewholeWhathesaid:YouhavetastedthewholeAsingleofphonemeisadded,anddeletedormoved,butatothertimesitmaybeasequenceofphonemes,morphemicaffixesandroots,wholewords,orevenphrases.Theslipoftongueprovideevidencethatasentencemustbeplannedbeforeitisproduced.Theyalsoprovidetheevidencethatmorpheme,ratherthantheword,isthefundamentalbuildingblockofEnglishsentenceproduction.ExpermentalLexicalDecison:anexperiment,psychologistsemploytoinvestigatelexicalaccess.Aparticipantseesastringoflettersandisrequiredtodecidewhetherthestringisawordornot.Fingdings:Firstly,subjectstakelesstimetomakejudgementonfrequentlyusedwordsthantojudgelesscommonwords.Secondly,subjectstakelongertimetorespondtothepronounceablenon-words.Itseemsthatthesubjectstakethephonotacticconstraintsofthelanguageintoaccount.Thirdly,non-wordsthatsoundlikerealwordstakelongerrejectthanstimulithatarenon-wordsbothvisuallyandphonologically.Againthislsusthataspectsofphonologyareautomaticallyactivatedduringthewordreading.TheprimingPrime,target,primingtaskconsistsoftwostages.Inthefirststage,theprimispresented,towhichnoresponseisusuallyrequiresandrecorded.Inthesecondstage,thetargetispresented,towhichtheparticipantisrequiredtogivesomeresponseandthetimetakentomakethisresponseisrecorded.Resultsofthissortleadustotheviewthatwordsarerelatedinthemindintermsofnetworks.Psycholinguistreasonthatwhenawordsuchasbreadispresented,itsimageisactivatedinthemindandaresemanticallyrelated. butter/ Time-readingexperiments:isatechniqueusedtostudythedeterminantsofsentenceprocessingdifficulty.Theunderlyingassumptionoftheexperimentthatmoredifficultenceprocessingis,thelongerisshouldtake.Findings:researchhasshownthatthesubjectsdonotshowequalbar-pressingtimesacrossasentence.Theyshowlongerbar-pressingtimesforprocessingmostnounsandverbsandrelativelylesstimefunctionwordssuchasdeterminers,conjectionsandprepositionsandthelongestbar-processingtimeat oftheclauseboundarysinceextratimeisrequiredtointegrateprecedinginformationintoacompleteclauseEyemovementisanothermethodusedtostudysentenceprocessing.Theexactpointontheprintedpageatwhicha 'seyefixatescanbedeterminedthrougheye-monitoringequipment.Thistechniquehasrevealedthatfixationtimesaretypicallylongerforlessfrequentwords,andthepointsoffixationaretypicallycenteredoncontentwordssuchasnounsandverbsratherthanonfunctionwordssuchasdeterminersandconjunctions.Difficultencestructurescreatelongerfixationdurationtimeaswellasmanydifficultyregressivesaccades.Thusfixationdurationisoneindexofthedifficultyofinformationprocessingduringreading.LinguisticsandlanguageBottom-upprocessing:Whena hearsasentence,heperformsphoneticsysistoisolatephonemesandwordboundaries,andtothesetorepresentationsinmentallexicon.Thisinductiveysisisreferredtoasbottom-upprocessing.Top-downprocessing:WhereasifwebegininterpretationofaspontaneouslyandautomaticallyonthebasisofwhateverinformationavailabletoThuslanguageprocessinginvolvesaconstantinterplaybetweenbottom-upandtop-downprocessing.Weprocessphoneticfeatures,phonemes,andsyllablesallatthesametime.Weconstructsyllablerepresentations,morphologicalrepresentations,andsyntacticrepresentationsinaspontaneousandautomaticmanner.TheprocessingofphoneticandCohortmodel:inwordcomprehension,wordsareysedproceedsonephonemeatatimeratherthanonesyllableatatime.Spokenwordrecognitionoccursinthreestages.First,onthebasisofanacoustic-phoneticysisoftheinput,asetoflexicalcandidatesisactivated.Second,onememberofthecohortisselectedforfurtherysis.Theselectionstageissensitivetomultiplesourcesofinformation,includingthephoneticinput,wordvariables（詞匯變量）andtheongoingdiscourse.Finally,theselectedlexicalitemisintegratedintotheongoingsemanticandsyntacticcontext.MorphologicalPsycholinguisticresearchhasrevealedthatmorphologicalstructuresandprinciplesplayasubstantialroleintherepresentationofwordsinthemindandinwordrecognition,Formostmulti-morphemicwords,individualmorphemesareautomaticallyactivated.Primingexperimentsshowthatwhenasubjectisexposedtoamulti-morphemicwordsuchasboyish,theactivationofthatwordinthemindautomaticallyactivatesthelexicalentryforitsrootboy,whichresultinshowingafastertimeasthetargetinalexicaldecisiontask.Selectionalrestrictions（選擇限制Researchshowsthattheknowledgeoftheselectionalrestrictionsofaffixesdoesindeedformpartoftheword-processingsystem.Intheexperiment,thesubjectswerepresentedwithnonsenserootsthathadprefixesandsuffixesattachedtothem.Somewordsweremorphologicallylegalwhileotherswereillegal.Itwasfoundthatresponsetimesweresignificantlylongerforillegalnonsensewordsthanforthemorphologicallylegalwords.Hierarchicalstructure（層次結(jié)構(gòu)refillablevs.fillableisnotarealmorphologicalSubjectswerefirstshowntherightsub-stringssuchasf