第二稿-電子版保存外文翻譯

外文翻譯之 implementationinfoodbusinesses:theneedforaflexibleapproach作者：1.JohnE 2.GeorgeP國籍：1. 2.出處：August1995inJOURNALOFTHEROYALSOCIETYOFHEALTH,Page249—253:Thereisaconsiderableliteratureonmicrobiologicalhazardswhichcausefoodbornediseasesandillnesses,andfactorswhichinfluencetheiroccurrenceandgrowthinfoods.Similarly,stagesinthefoodchainwherefoodsmaybemishandled,andpracticeswhichoftenleadtooutbreaksoffood-bornediseasesarewelled.Althoughthesehazardsandpracticescanbecontrolledinordertopreventorminimiseriskstohealth,foodbornediseaseshavecontinuedtopresentaseriouschallengetopublichealth.Becausethetraditionalapproachesofinspectionandend-producttestinghaveprovedinadequateintacklingtheproblemoffood-bornediseases,thereisanurgentneedtoapplymorerationalandeffectivestrategies.OnesuchstrategyistheHazard ysis,CriticalControlPoints(HA )systemwhichiscurrentlyininternationaldiscussion.ThispaperexaminestheepidemiologicalbasisfortheapplicationofHAtofoodsafetycontrolanddescribesitsadvantages.ItisconcludedthattorealisetheobjectivesofHA,aflexibleandsimpleapproachisneededinitspracticalapplicationacrossfoodbusinesses.Anyargumentthatthesystemcannotbeappliedwithoutfullydevelopedandwellstructuredfoodsystemswillultimayreduceitspotentialusefulnessinfoodsafetycontrol. Food-bornediseasesareanimportantpublichealthprobleminbothdevelopedanddevelocountries(WorldHealthOrganization(WHO),1984).Althoughtheirhealthandeconomicimpactsareneverfullyappreciatedbecauseofinsufficiencyofdata,availableinformationonincidence(WHO/InternationalCommissionofMicrobiologicalSpecificationforFoods(ICMSF),1980;Todd,1978)andassociatedhealthandeconomiccosts(egRobertsetal,1989;Roberts,1988;Todd,1985)indicatesthattheyconstituteamajorcauseofmorbidityandadrainonhumanandmaterialresources.AjointWHO/FAOexpertcommitteeonfoodsafetyobservedthatillnessduetocontaminatedfoodisprobablythemostwidespreadhealthprobleminthecontemporaryworld,andanimportantcauseofreducedeconomicproductivity(WHO,1984).Foodcontaminationisalsoamajorriskfactorininfantdiarrhoeaandassociatedmalnutrition.Itisestimatedthatindevelocountriesinparticular,about70%ofallcasesofinfantdiarrhoeaiscausedbycontaminatedfood(Mortajemietal,1993).Thereiswideacceptancethattraditionalapproachesbasedmainlyoninspectionsandend-producttestinghavefailedtomeetthechallengesoffood-bornediseasesandillnesses.Theinadequaciesofinspectionforinstancehavebeenhighlightedinanumberofreports.First,theyrelyonquickobservationofproductsandpractices,andthisislikelytogivelittleinformationonthebasisofwhichmeaningfulconclusionscanbereached(EhiriandMorris,1994).Mostofthepoorpracticeswhichoftenleadtooutbreaksoffood-bornediseases,egimpropercoolingandunacceptabledelaybetweenfoodpreparationandserviceareusuallyinevidenceovernightandatothertimeswheninspectionmaybeimpracticable(Bryan,1988).Again,althoughthechangingepidemiologyoffood-bornediseaseshasbeenreportedinanumberofstudies(eg,ArcherandYoung,1988;Cox,1989;Critchleyetal,1989;Rodriguezetal,1990;Wilkinsonetal,1991;Trickett,1992),traditionalinspectionprocedureshavefailedtorecognizethesechanges.Forexample,areportbythecommitteeonthescientificbasisofthemeatandpoultryinspectionprogrammeintheUSA(NationalResearchCouncil,1985)suggeststhattraditionalinspectionprocedureshavenotchangedfornearly70years,andthatmeatinspectorsrelymostlyonsight,smellandtouchtoarriveatdecisionsonthesafetyofanimalsandcarcasses.SimilarexperiencehasbeenreportedinNewZealand(HathawayandMcKenzie,1991),whileTebbutt(1986)hasnotedthepoorcorrelationbetweenmicrobiologicalreportsandvisualinspection.Expressingtheirdoubtsabouttheeffectofinspectionsonfoodsafety,KaplanandElAhraf(1979)arguethatthereisnoscientificrationaleforthetraditionalbeliefthatfoodestablishmentsshouldundergoanarbitraryregimenofinspectionsannually.Forexample,astudy(Kirshner,1990)ontheeffectsofthefrequencyofinspectioninfoodserviceestablishmentsoncompliancewithfoodsafetyregulationsandtheoccurrenceoffoodbornediseaseoutbreaksinOntario,Canada,showedthattherewasnodifferenceininfractionscores,andtheoccurrenceoffood-bornediseaseoutbreaksinestablishmentsassignedastandardofsixinspectionsperyear,comparedtothoseassignedaregimenoftwoorfourinspections.End-producttestingontheotherhand,isnotonlytimeconsuming,alsoreactive.Anegativeresultonlycallsforremedialactionbyoperatorsorbylocalauthorities(usuallypunitive)butdoesnotpreventtheoccurrenceofthehazardinthefirstplace.Inmostcasesasamplingfrequencythatisadequateforreliabledetectionoflowlevelsofpathogensisseldompossiblebecauseofthelargernumberofsamplesneeded(NationalAdvisoryCommitteeonMicrobiologicalCriteriaforFoods(NACMCF)1992).Giventheever-increasingincidenceoffood-bornediseasesandthe ingsoftheseapproaches,thereisanurgentneedtoapplyalternativeapproachesofproveneffectiveness.OnesuchapproachistheHazardy.ri.r,CriticalControlPoints(HA)systemwhichhasbeendescribedasthemostviablemeanstothepreventionoffoodbornediseasesyetdevised(MichanieandBryan,TheHAconceptisnotnewasmanywronglyproject.Thenotionofcriticalcontrolpoint();ie,apoint,steporprocedureatwhichcontrolcanbeappliedandafoodhazardcanbeprevented,eliminated,orreducedtoacceptablelevels(NACMCF,1992),wasfirstpostulatedattheUSNationalConferenceonFoodProtection(1971),whereBauman(1971a,b)presentedproceduresfordefiningandidentifyingthem.DevelopmentandapplicationoftheseideaswerechampionedbytheNationalAeronauticandSpaceAdministration(NASA),theNatyckLaboratoriesandthePillsburyCompany.By1974,HA hadbeenappliedtothemanufactureoflowacidcannedfoodsbytheUSFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA).Theapplicationof tofoodsafetycontrolisbasedonthepremisethatpotentialfoodhazardsandfaultypracticescanbeidentifiedduringoperations,oftenintimetopreventorminimiseriskstotheconsumer,oreconomicburdenontheoperatorasaresultofspoilageorrecallofmarketeditems(Bryan,1981a).PreventingproblemsfromoccurringistheparamountgoalunderlyinganyHAsyste(NACMCF,1992).AschematicpresentationoftheactivitiesinvolvedintheestablishmentofaHAsystemispresentedonFigure1,whileFigure2givesdetailsofthestepsthatmaybefollowedinthedeterminationof s.Detailedexplanationofthesestepscanbefoundelsewhere(eg,NACMCF,1992;Bryan,1992;BerendsandSnijders,1994).EpidemiologicalbasisfortheapplicationofHAtofoodsafetyDatafromdiseasesurveillanceandresearchprovidecluestotheepidemiologicalcycleoffood-bornediseasesinindividuals.Forinstance,foranindividualtoacquireafood-bornedisease,thecausativeagentmustbepresentinindividualsinthecommunity,infoodanimalsorintheenvironmentinwhichfoodsaregrown,harvested,processedorstored(Bryan,1981a).Thereservoirsforthecausativeagentsusuallyincludepatients,healthyindividuals(egfoodhandlers),foodanimalsortheenvironment(egsoil).Inaddition,chemicalswhichcontaminatefoodsaremostlythoseusedeitheraspesticides,manureorforculinarypurposes.Anagentmaycontaminateafoodplantduringcultivation,harvestorduringprocessing,preparation,storageorservice.Fruitsandvegetablescanbecontaminatedfromsoilduringcultivationorharvesting;animalscanbeinfectedcongenitally,orduringrearing.Eggsforexample,canbecontaminatedduringformation,contactwithnestsorfromdrops(Bryan,1981a).Practicesandprocedureswhichoftenleadtotheoccurrenceofoutbreaksoffoodbornediseaseshavealsobeenstudiedacrossanumberofcountries.IntheUSAtheyinclude,inorderofimportance(measuredintermsoffrequencyofoccurrence):impropercoolingoffoods,unduedelaybetweenfoodpreparationandservice,contaminationbyinfectedfoodhandlers,inadequatetime-temperatureexposureduringheatprocessingoffoods,hotstorageandreheating(Bryan,1988).InAustralia,thesinglemostimportantfactorisinadequatetime-temperaturecontrolinthestorageoffoods(Davey,1985).InEnglandandWales,thecontributingfactorsinclude,inorderofimportance,unduedelaysbetweenfoodpreparationandservice,inadequatetemperatureexposureduringhotstorageoffoods,impropercooling,inadequatetimetemperatureexposureduringheatprocessingoffoods,contaminationbyfoodhandlersandingestionofrawfoods(Roberts,1982).TheHA systemisuniqueinitsapproachtofoodsafetycontrolinthesensethatitutilisesthisinformationaswellasdataonmicrobialecologyoffoods,inactivelypreventingproblemsfromoccurring.TheimportanceofHAinfoodsafetyPerhapsthemostimportantadvantageoftheHAsystemistheincreasedsafetyconsciousnessthatitislikelytopromoteamongfoodbusinessoperatorsbyincorporatingfoodsafetyintoeverystageoffoodoperation.Itachievesthisbyrequiringoperatorstoidentifyanystepintheiractivitieswhichiscriticaltoachievingfoodsafety,andtoensurethatadequateandeffectivesafetymeasuresareidentified,implemented,maintained,monitoredandevaluated.Itencouragesanoperatorto yseprocessesfromasystemsviewpoint,sothatstaffcanidentifyandcorrecttroublespots,andverifytheadequacyofinternalquality-controlsystems,ordeveloponeifnoneexists(Hile,1974).TheWHOandtheICMSF(1980)havestronglyadvocateditsapplicationthroughoutthefoodchainasthewayforwardinpreventingandcontrollingfood-bornediseases.TheECDirectiveonHygieneofFoodstuffs(EC,1993)also mendsitsactiveimplementationinallfoodbusinesseswithinthecommunity.IntheUSA,theFoodCodereleasedbytheFDAin1993nowrequiresregulatoryprofessionalstoimplementtheirfoodprogrammesbasedontheprinciplesofHA .TheHA systemisdesignedtoidentifypotentialproblemsassociatedwithaproductratherprecisely,anditprovidesacleardefinitionofwhatneedstobedonetocorrectobjectionableconditionsandprocedures.Mostimportantly,itprovidesaninsightintothewayinwhichanoperationisfunctioning365daysayear,especiallywhenaninspectorisnotthere(Hile,1974).TheideaofHAalsoseemstobeofimmensepracticalvalueundertheUKFoodSafetyAct,1990whichhasprovisionfordefenceofduediligence(FoodSafetyAct,1990).ItisarguedthatanoperationalHAsystemcanconstitutesufficientdemonstrationthatduediligencehasbeentakentopreventtheoccurrenceofparticularhazards(EhiriandMorris,1994).HA isequallyvalidindevelocountrieswhereitcanbeusedtominimisethehealthandeconomiccostsoffood-bornediseasesandfoodspoilage.Itcanalsohelptopromoteforeignearningsfromfoodtradebyenhancinginternationalacceptabilityofproducts.HAimplementation:TheneedforaflexibleTheHAconcepthasitsrootinthefoodprocessingindustrywhereroutineoperationsfollowwelldefined,uniformpatterns.Therefore,anyattempttoapplyitinothersectorsofthefoodbusinesswherethisrequirementislackingmustadoptaflexibleapproachifnegativeimpactsandunduedifficultiesaretobeavoided.TakenrigidlyaspresentedinFigure1forinstance,onemightbepersuadedtoarguethatthesystemcanbebestappliedtoestablishmentswiththetypeofcentralizedproductionthatpermitdefinedoperationalpatterns.Itmayalsobearguedthatthesystemwillworkbestinestablishmentswithwellstructuredorganisationalandmanagementcontrolsystems.Forthisreason,therehasbeenafeelingthatHAisnotwellsuitedforthefoodserviceindustrywhereuniformstandardproceduresareseldomfollowed.Thereisoftenawidescopeforvariationandimprovisationsinfoodserviceoperations,dependingonprevailingcircumstancesandtheskillsofemployeesondutyataparticulartime.AccordingtoSheared(1986)interestisusuallyfocusedonmeetingatalltimes,thedemandforfoodbycustomers,andnotonproceduresforpreparation,whichusuallyrestsonthediscretionofemployees.Ironically,theneedfortheapplicationofHA ismoreurgentinfoodservicebusinesseswhich,fromavailableevidenceareoftenresponsibleformostoutbreaksoffood-bornediseases(eg,Bryan,1978;1979;1981a;1988).AlthoughanumberofstudieshavedemonstratedtheapplicabilityofHAinfoodserviceoperations(eg,BobengandDavid,1977;Bryan,19816;1990),thereisagrowingconcernthatthesystemdoesnotreadilycommenditselftowiderapplicationinnormalcateringoperations.Thisunderscorestheneedforflexibilityinitsapplicationacrosstypesoffoodbusinesses,especiallyinthosesectorswhereitsneedismostapparent.ThemainobjectivesoftheHAsystemaretoidentifyhazardsinafoodoperation,todetermineprocedurescriticaltofoodsafety,andtodeviseandimplementeffectivepreventivemeasurestoensurecompliancewithapprovedcriticallimits,iecriteriawhichmustbemetforeachpreventivemeasureassociatedwitha (NACMCF,1992).AsMarcello(1994)argues,’HAisaprocesstobeinitiatedandnotaprogrammetobeimplemented,...itisasmuchathoughtprocessasitisafoodsafetymanagementsystem.Butattemptsto.standardizethesystemhasresultedindefiningitintermsofflowdiagramsandrecord-keeratherthanencouragingbehaviorsthatcontrolfactorswhichcontributetofood-bornediseases’.ThereisanunfortunatetendencytoregardHAasaprogrammetobecontractedout,orasaone-offpaperexercise;andtheremayevenbeatemptationforfoodoperatorstoengagetheservicesofoutside’consultants’todevelopforthem,’paper-basedHAsystems’,withoutthemselvesunderstandingtheconceptandlackingprocedurestofacilitateitspracticalapplication.Thisisadevelopmentthathastobeguardedagainst,iftheobjectivesofHA aretoberealized. y,everyoperation,beitinthefoodprocessingindustryorinfoodserviceestablishments,consistsofaseriesofclearlyidentifiabletasks.Aseachtaskis plished,itisincorporatedintotheoveralloperatingproceduresthatmakeupthebuildingblocksinthedevelopmentofamanagementsystem(Marcello,1994).Basedonourunderstandingofpracticesandproceduresthatoftenleadtooutbreaksoffood-bornediseases,wecanidentifyforeachoperation,thosetaskswhicharecriticaltofoodsafetycontrol.Ifforagivenoperation,poortime-temperaturecontrol,unacceptablehygienestandardsamongstaff,faultyequipmentorcrosscontaminationareidentifiedasthesignificantproblemareas,controlofthesefactorsintheprocessing,preparationorserviceoffoodsshouldformbasisfortheestablishmentofprioritiesforaHA schemeinthatestablishment.TheforegoingdiscussionhasprovidedanoverviewofthebasisfortheapplicationofHAinfoodbusinesses,aswellassomeoftheunanticipateddifficultiesthatmayariseinitsimplementationacrossfoodbusinesses,especiallyinthefoodservicesector.Inaddition,ithastoberealizedthatfoodsafetyproblemswillnotdisappearwiththeimplementationofHA.Easteretal(1994)havearguedthatonitsown,thesystemismainlyusefulasatechniqueforyzinghazardsandidentifyingthecriticalcontrolpointsinaprocess.Managingtheseonadailybasistheyargue,willrequiremanyothersupportingprocedures.Thescience-basednatureofHAshouldnotbeallowedtoovershadowtheneedtoemphasizeitssimplepracticalobjectives.Thesystemshouldnotbeseenasaprogrammetobeimplemented,butasaprocesstobefollowedonapracticalanddailybasis.Itshouldalsobeseenasabasisforestablishingprioritysafetyareas,andforimprovingalreadyexistingsafetymechanismsinfoodestablishments.Anyunderstandingthattheprinciplesof cannotbeappliedwithoutafullydevelopedsystem,flowcharts,andextensivepaperworkwillinevitablypresentamajorblocktoitswideracceptanceandimplementation,especiallyinthosesectorswhereitismostneeded.HAimplementationshouldbebasedonflexible,simple,practicalandcost-effectiveapproaches.In ngsohowever,theobjectivesofthesystemshouldneverbecompromised.HA在食品企業(yè)中的實(shí)施：需要一個(gè)靈活的方作者：1.JohnE 2.GeorgeP國籍：1.新西蘭2.出處：1995年8月，英國學(xué)會(huì)健康雜志，第249至253同樣在食物鏈階段很多表明因?yàn)槭称泛妥龇ɑ蜃钚』瘜?duì)健康的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)但是食源性疾病仍然嚴(yán)重公眾健康因?yàn)樽罱K產(chǎn)理和有效的。其中之一的方法就是危害分析，關(guān)鍵控制點(diǎn)（HA）系統(tǒng)，這是目前國際在討論的本文探討了HA的流行病學(xué)基礎(chǔ)在食品安全控制中的應(yīng)用并介紹了它的優(yōu)勢(shì)結(jié)論為了實(shí)現(xiàn)HA的目標(biāo)需要在整個(gè)食品企業(yè)的糧食系統(tǒng)，這種說法最終將降低其在食品安全控制的潛在用途。1.引不能完全理解，但是對(duì)（WHO微生物規(guī)范食品（ICMSF），1980/國際委食品安全的WHO/FAO專家，由于患病污染的食物可能是世界上食品污染也是嬰兒腹瀉及營養(yǎng)不良的主要據(jù)估計(jì)特別是發(fā)展中國家，70％嬰兒腹瀉的病例是由于污染的食品（Mortajemi，1993）。年;等人，1990年;威爾金森等人，1991;特里克特，1992），傳統(tǒng)的檢驗(yàn)程序都沒有認(rèn)識(shí)到這些變化。例如，在（國家研究，1985）類和家禽檢驗(yàn)方案報(bào)告的科學(xué)基礎(chǔ)上，認(rèn)為，傳統(tǒng)的檢測(cè)方法近70年沒安全范圍。新西蘭已經(jīng)類似的經(jīng)驗(yàn)（哈撒韋和McKenzie的，1991），而特ElAhraf（1979）認(rèn)為，傳統(tǒng)觀念品安全的餐飲服務(wù)場所檢查頻率和食源性疾病暴發(fā)的發(fā)生場所的研究表明：每年六個(gè)檢驗(yàn)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，相比那些指定的兩個(gè)或四個(gè)檢查的方案，結(jié)果顯示行為。另一方面，成品檢驗(yàn)不僅費(fèi)時(shí)費(fèi)力，而且定性的結(jié)果只要求運(yùn)營商或方法。預(yù)防食源性疾病的最可行的法是Hazardy.ri.r，關(guān)鍵控制。（HA）體系（Michanie和Bryan，1987）HA的概念有錯(cuò)誤的理解并不新鮮。關(guān)鍵控制點(diǎn)的概念（）即，一個(gè)的Natyck和Pillsbury公司倡導(dǎo)。到1974年，HA 頭食品由食品和藥物管理局（FDA）的制造。食品安全控制應(yīng)用程序HA是基于潛在食物危害和不完善的實(shí)踐可以在操作期間被識(shí)別從而經(jīng)常防止或盡量減少腐壞或被給消費(fèi)者，或者操作者的經(jīng)濟(jì)負(fù)擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)（布萊恩，1981a）基本任何HA系統(tǒng)的最重要的目標(biāo)都是為了防止發(fā)生問（NACMCF，（例如，NACMCF，1992;布萊恩，1992;BERENDSSnijders，1994）HA在食品安全控制中的應(yīng)用流行病學(xué)基中或以食物成長環(huán)境，收獲，加工和（布萊恩，1981a）的。儲(chǔ)層的病原體外，化學(xué)物質(zhì)污染的食品，主要是那些用來作為，肥料或用于烹飪的目的。在，按重要性的順序（在發(fā)生頻率測(cè)量）：食品的冷卻不當(dāng)，準(zhǔn)備食物和服務(wù)之間的延誤受的食物處理污染食品熱加工過程中的溫度時(shí)間不夠，熱和加熱（布萊恩，1988）。在澳大利亞，一個(gè)最重要的因素是食品保存溫性順序準(zhǔn)備食物和服務(wù)之間過度的延遲過食品溫度不夠散熱不良，食品熱加工過程中的溫度，由和食品原料污染（羅伯茨，1982）。HA體系利用這些信息以及對(duì)食品微生物生態(tài)學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)，積極預(yù)防問題HA在食品安全保障的重要也許HA體系的最重要的優(yōu)勢(shì)是增加了安全意識(shí)它很可能通過將食品安一個(gè)（HILE，1974年）。世界衛(wèi)生組織和ICMSF（1980）曾強(qiáng)烈在預(yù)防和控制食建議，積極在社區(qū)內(nèi)的所有食品企業(yè)實(shí)施。在，1993年食品FDA要求現(xiàn)在人員根據(jù)HA 最重要的是，它提供了運(yùn)作一年365天的操作方式，特別是不存在檢查員時(shí) 根據(jù)1990年國防盡職的規(guī)定（食品安全法，1990）。有人認(rèn)為，運(yùn)行HA體系可以構(gòu)成充分的論證，為防止危害發(fā)生已采取盡職（ehiri和Morris，1994）。HA是同樣在發(fā)展中國家有效的，它可以用來減少健康和經(jīng)濟(jì)成本的食源性疾病和食品。它也可以幫助促進(jìn)來自食品貿(mào)易的外匯收入，通過提高HA的實(shí)施：一個(gè)靈活的方法的需HA的概念于行業(yè)，遵循良好的，統(tǒng)一的模式常規(guī)操作。因此，任何試圖把它應(yīng)用于在其他行業(yè)的食品業(yè)務(wù)，如果要避免影響和不必要的，必須是采用靈活的方法。例如圖1采取嚴(yán)格的措施，人們可能被說服認(rèn)因，HA是不適合用于很少有人問津的食品服務(wù)行業(yè)統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)程序。往往有而不是過程，這個(gè)過程通常依賴于員工自覺符合步驟制作。具有諷刺意味的是，從現(xiàn)有的證表明HA需要應(yīng)用于更為迫切的食品服務(wù)企業(yè)，因?yàn)槟抢锿鞘吃葱约膊〉谋l(fā)的（布萊恩，1978；1979；1981a；1988）。雖然一些研究已經(jīng)證實(shí)HA在食品服務(wù)業(yè)務(wù)的適用性（例如，博泵和戴維，1977；布萊個(gè)預(yù)防措施與（NACMCF，1992）。馬塞洛（1994）認(rèn)為，“HA是一個(gè)過食源性疾病的激勵(lì)行為“這是將HA承包出去的計(jì)劃，是一個(gè)不幸的傾向，HA系統(tǒng)，沒有自己的理解的概念和缺乏程序便于HA的目標(biāo)得以實(shí)現(xiàn)，必須警惕。幸運(yùn)的是，每一個(gè)操作，無論它是在業(yè)還是食品服務(wù)場所，由一系故障或交叉污染被確定為重要的問題，這些因素在，準(zhǔn)備或服務(wù)控制應(yīng)成為建立HA計(jì)劃的優(yōu)先事項(xiàng)。結(jié)前面的討論提供了HA應(yīng)用于食品企業(yè)的概述以及一些在食品企業(yè)實(shí)施可能出現(xiàn)的意想不到的，特別是在食品服務(wù)業(yè)。此外，必須實(shí)施HA，食品安全問題不會(huì)。Easter等人（1994）認(rèn)為，就其本身而言，該基于科學(xué)的HA自然不應(yīng)被其簡單實(shí)用的需求所掩蓋該系統(tǒng)不應(yīng)被視為統(tǒng)流程圖和大量的文書工作不能應(yīng)用HA原理將不可避免地對(duì)它的廣泛接受和實(shí)施是一個(gè)重大的阻礙尤其是在這些部門最需要它的地方HA的實(shí)到影響。外文翻譯之OneHA ,TwoApproaches:ExperiencesWithandPerceptionsoftheHazard ysisandCriticalControlPointFoodSafetyManagementSystemsintheUnitedStatesandtheEU作者：1.RichardHyde2.A.BryceHoflund3.Mice國籍：1.USA2.USA出處：August2014,Administration&Society,SummaryThisarticleexploresthedifferencesintheuseoftheHazardysisandCriticalControlPoint(HA)systemtomanagefoodrisksinthefoodchainfromfarmtoforkintheEUandtheUnitedStates.Inparticular,thisarticleinvestigatesthecurrentusesandpotentialexpansionof asamechanismforthedeliveryofsafeagriculturalproducts,particularlysafeproduce.Usingdataderivedfromsemi-structuredinterviewswithregulatoryactorsintheEUandtheUnitedStates,thisarticlearguesthatthedifferentapproachtoHA isaresultofdifferingideasabouttherolethatitplaysintheernanceoffoodsafetyandthedifferentconceptsoftheroleofregulationinsecuringsafefood.Finally,thearticleexploresdifficultiesofutilizingHAtomanageproducesafetyrisksandraisesfurtherchallengesthatmustbemettoensurethatHAcansuccessfullyfulfillitspotentialasaernancemechanism：HazardysisandCriticalControlPointsystem,foodregulation,EuropeanUnion,UnitedStates,democraticexperimentalism,foodsafetymanagementsystemsInrecentyears,boththeEuropeanUnionandtheUnitedStateshaveexperiencedanumberofwell-publicizedfoodsafetyincidentsthathavecalledintoquestionthecapacityoftheexistingregulatoryapparatustoensuresafefoodforconsumers.IntheUnitedStates,therehavebeenrecallsofspinach,peanuts(andpeanutproducts),lettuce,groundbeef,andotherproducts.AndinthelastfewyearsintheEU,Spanisheggs,Italianclams,FrenchandIrishoysters,Polishsausages,andmincedbeeffromSwedenhaveallbeenrecalled,alongwithotherproducts.Overthelastdecade,intheaftermathofbovinespongiformencephalopathy(BSE)or“madcow”disease,theEUhascreatedanewintegratedregimeregulatingfoodsafety,buttheUnitedStatesisstillgrapplingwiththeseincidentsanddebatingwhichregulatoryroadtopursue(Haines,2009).CentraltotheEUregimeistherequirementthatafoodsafetymanagementsystembasedonHazard ysisandCriticalControlPoints(HA)beimplementedatmoststagesoffarm-to-forkfoodproduction,anditisstronglyencouragedinallotherareas,includingprimaryproduction.Todate,intheUnitedStates,therehasnotbeenaformalrequirementtoimplementafoodsafetymanagementsystemakintotheEUmandate,butsuchsystemsareencouraged,particularlybytradeassociations.Here,weareinterestedinthesimilaritiesanddifferencesinexperiencesofboththeEUandtheUnitedStatesintheirapproachestofoodsafetyand,inparticular,theirjourneyssurroundingfoodmanagementsystems.Eliteinterviewswithfoodsafetyprofessionalsin ernment,industry,andinterestgroupsinboththeUnitedStatesandtheEUdemonstratetwocurrentapproachestowardincreasedfoodsafetyanduseofHA.IntheUnitedStates,wehaveuncoveredagrowinginterestandmovementtowardtheadoptionofflexibleandcustomizablemechanisms,suchasHA,toensurefoodsafety.WherethesesystemshavebeenimplementedintheUnitedStates,thedrivershavegenerallybeenfromindustryitself.Thisbusiness-drivenuseofHAcontrastswiththecurrentpositionintheEU,whereapolicydecisionwasmadetocreateacentralizedregulatoryregimewithHAasoneofitscenterpieces.PriortotheformaladoptionofRegulation178/2002,whichrequiresHAwithintheEU,therewasmovementtoadoptHAinthefood-manufacturingsector,ledbythesupermarketsthroughragreements(Havinga,2006).ThismaysuggestthattheUnitedStatesisfollowingasimilarevolutionarypathtotheEU,movingfrombusiness-driventoregulator-drivenadoptionofHA.WearguethatthedifferentapproachestoHA arearesultofdifferingideasabouttherolethatHA playsintheernanceoffoodsafetyandthedifferentconceptsoftheroleofbusinessandofregulationinensuringsafefood.WeillustratethecontrastingpolicychoicesandattemptilluminatethedriversbehindthedifferentpolicydecisionsintheUnitedStatesandtheEU.Weconsiderhowthetwoapproachescreatelinkagesbetweenactorsinthefoodproductionsphere,howthedifferentapproachesinfluencetheactionsofdecisionmakers,andweilluminatethesimilaritiesanddifferencesofapproach.Finally,weexplorethestrengthsandweaknessesofthecontrastingapproachesandconsiderhowtheymaybeappliedtotheprimaryproductionofproduceintheUnitedStatesandtheEU.Thesection intheContextofSelf-RegulatoryApproaches”examinesHAanditsuseasaregulatorytechnologywithintheUnitedStatesandtheEU,beforeconsideringhowregulatorsareusingHA ,particularlyintheproducesafetycontext.ItalsoplacesHA withintheregulatoryliteratureandconsidersitsroleasaregulatoryintervention.“Method”sectionprovidesabriefoverviewofthemethodology.“Findings”sectionexaminesdatagatheredfrominterviewswithregulatoryactorsintheUnitedStatesandEUtoconsider,first,therolethatHAcanplayinensuringsafeproduceand,second,whatis,andcanbe,theroleplayedbyHAwithintheEUandtheUnitedInthissection,wediscussourinterviewfindingsandprovideanoverviewofHAatworkintheEUandtheUnitedStates.WediscussandcomparetheimplementationofHAintheEUandtheUnitedStatesbyfivekeythemesdrawnfromourempiricalwork:businesssize,businesstype,routinization,enforcements,andperceptionsofHA.Insomecases,similaritieswerediscerned,whereasinothersinterviewdataidentifiedComparingHA RegulationintheEUandtheUnitedStates:HAandBusinessSizeTheEUintervieweesexpressedtheviewthatHAworkedbetterforlargerbusinessesbecausesuchbusinesseshavegreaterresourcesandlargerprocesses,bothofwhichareconducivetothemoreefficientimplementationof edfoodsafetymanagementsystem.TheU.S.intervieweessupportedthisconclusion.However,themorelimitedrequirementstoimplementHAintheUnitedStatesmeantthatsmallerfoodbusinessescouldchoosetoproduceedproceduresmoretailoredtotheirneeds,whereasintervieweesdrawnfromEuropeanbusinesses,whichhavenochoiceoveradoptingHAasameansofmanagingfoodsafetyrisks,oftenfeltthattheyarebeingaskedtocompleteunnecessarypaperwork.ThesuggestionofGunningham(2002)thatsmall-andmedium-sizedenterprisesresponddifferentlytoprocess-basedregulationwhencomparedwithlargeenterprisesissupportedbythisresearch.Intervieweeshighlightthemorelimitedresources(oftime,money,and nel)andexpertiseofsmallfoodbusinessesasinhibitingthedesireandabilityoffoodbusinessestoimplementItseemsclearthatourintervieweesperceivelargebusinessesasbenefitingfromHAmorethansmallbusinesses.ThisisborneoutbytheU.S.experiencewherelargebusinesseshavechosentouseHA,andsmallbusinesseshave,byandlarge,chosennotto.ThebusinessbenefitsofHA,suchasgreaterbusinessesefficiency,aremoreimportanttolargebusiness,whichhavemorediverseoperations,thantosmallbusinesses, al,ratherthanprocessdriven,oversightismorelikelytobeComparingHA RegulationintheEUandtheUnitedStates:HAandBusinessTypeInadditiontoadividebetweenlargeandsmallbusiness,intheEU,HA perceiveddifferentlybyfoodprocessorsandmanufacturersandbyretailerswhosupplythefoodtothefinalconsumer.Whilethismaybepartiallyanartifactofsize,italsoreflectstheperceivedusefulnessofHA tothesedifferentsituations.HA ,initiallycreatedforlarge-scalefoodprocessingwherethemonitoringofcriticalcontrolpointscanbeintegratedintotheworkflowswithinthebusiness,isseenasbettersuitedtolarge-scaleprocessing.Withsmall-scalecatering,wherelargenumbersofdifferentdishesmaybecreatedasmallnumberoftimeseachday,integratingHAintothebusinessesisseenasmoredifficult.OneEUinterviewee,aconsultantfoodhygienist,wentsofarastosaythatitwasimpossibletoimplementHAproperlyinacateringbusiness.Althoughsomegeneralcontrolpointscanbeimplementedandmonitored(e.g.,temperaturefollowingcooking),businessesfeltthattheyarebeingaskedtotailorplanstoeachproduct,whichisnotne