托福31閱讀答案詳細(xì)解析tpo14r

WhichofthefollowingisNOTmentionedinparagraph1asbeingadifficultjudgmentforchildrentomakeaboutadvertisedtoys?HowbighetoysHowmuchthetoysWhatthetoyscanHowhetoysareTheword“Verify”inhepassageisclosestinmeaningestablishthetruthapprove詞匯題。直接近義詞?。。?！明明知道viy是核實(shí)，證實(shí)的意思。但我卻猶豫見到選項(xiàng)是詞組，所以少有的被迷惑。然后開始往原文帶入。記住詞匯題通常不需要這樣做??！Inparagraph2,whatisonereasonhatclaimssuchas“thebest”or“betterthan”canbemisleading?Theyrepresenttheopinionsofadults,whichareoftendifferentfromthoseofchildren.TheygenerallyinvolvecomparisonsamongonlyasmallgroupofTheyreflecttheattitudesofconsumerprotectiongroupsratherthanthoseofactualconsumers.Theyreflecttheadvertiser'sviewpointabouttheCerealadvertisementsthatincludethestatement“whenpartofanutriionallybalancedbreakfast"aretryingtosuggestthatthecerealisadesirablepartofahealthful,balancedthecerealcontainsequalamountsofallcerealisahealthierbreakfasthanoherfoodsthecerealishemostnutritiouspartofthebreakfast修辭目的題。錯(cuò)誤原因：我不知道這句話原意是什么啊。。是語法問題嗎？但可以從排除法判斷。c兩項(xiàng)都要注意比較！“比較”這個(gè)考點(diǎn)很重要！一定要判斷清楚比較對象！或 er的理解錯(cuò)誤。它=免責(zé)。也就是說整個(gè)eg句， er是對于其它產(chǎn)品的評論。。破折號后的內(nèi)容要注意?。?！這樣的話，就把黑體字和a項(xiàng)對應(yīng)上了。 Accordingtoparagraph2,allofthefollowingaretrueofdiersmadeinadverisementsEXCEPT:TheyarequalificationsorconditionsputonaTheymaybeusedtobalanceexaggeraTheyareusuallypresentedinbohaudioandvisualTheyareoftendifficultforchildrentoTheword"adept”inthepassageisclosestinmeaning

ChildrenandYoungchildrenaretrustingofcommercialadverisementsinhemedia,andadverisershavesometimesbeenaccusedoftakingadvantageofthistrustingoutlook.TheIndependentevisionCommission,regulatorofevisionadvertisingintheUnitedKingdom,hascriticizedadvertisersfor"misleadingness'—creaingawrongimpressioneitherintentionallyorunintentionally—inanefforttocontroladvertisers'useoftechniqueshatmakeitdifficultforchildrentojudgethetruesize,action,performance,orconstructionofatoy.Generalconcernaboutmisleadingtacicshatadvertisersemployiscenteredontheuseofexaggeration.Consumerprotectiongroupsandparentsbelievehatchildrenarelargelyill-equippedtorecognizesuchtechniquesandthatoftenexaggerationisusedattheexpenseofproductinformation.Claimssuchasthebest'or“betterthan"canbesubjectiveandmisleading（冒號）evenadultsmaybeunsureastotheirmeaning.Theyrepresentheadvertiser'sopinionsaboutthequalitiesoftheirproductsorbrandand,asaconsequence,aredifficulttoverify.Advertiserssometimesoffsetorcounterbalanceanexaggeratedclaimwihadier—aqualificationorcondiiononheclaim.Forexampletheclaimthatbreakfastcerealhasahealhbenefimaybe panied paniedbytheer"whenpartofabalancedbreakfast."However,researchhasshownhatchildrenoftenhavedifficultyunderstandingdiers:childrenmayinterpretthephrase'whenpartofanutritionallybalancedbreakfast"tomeanthatthecerealisrequiredasanecessarypartofabalancedbreakfast.TheauthorGeorgeComstocksuggestedthatlessthanaquarterofchildrenbetweentheagesofsixandeightyearsoldunderstoodstandarddiersusedinmanytoyadvertisementsandhatdiersaremorereadilycomprehendedwhenpresentedinbohaudioandvisualformats.Nevertheless,di ersaremainlypresentedinaudioformatParagraph3indicatesthatthereisuncertaintyaboutwhichofthefollowingissuesinvolvingchildrenandfantasyinadvertising?WhetherchildrencanlifwhattheyareseeinginanadvertisementisrealorfantasyWhetherchildrencandifferentiatefantasytechniquesfromothertechniquesusedinadverisingWhetherchildrenrealizehowcommonlyfantasytechniquesareusedinadverisingaimedathemWhetherchildrenareattractedtoadvertisementsthatlackWhichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformaioninhehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangehemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.Rationalappealsinadverisingarecertainlylimitedbychildren'semotionalimmaturityandtheindirectnatureofheirassociations.關(guān)系不對。Indirectappealstochildren'spsychologicalstatesorassociaionscanlimittheeffectivenessofrationalappealsinadvertising.動(dòng)作不對。Rationalappealsyamuchsmallerroleinadvertisementsforchildrenthanemotionalappealsandpsychologicalassociationsdo.Rationalappealsinadverisingaimedatchildrenshouldcertainlybelimiteduntilthechildrenareemotionallyandpsychologicallyready.rational，后者是emotional和indirect。仔細(xì)理解原文的話，原句并沒有說用emotional來limitrational！原文只是說由于用了emotional，所以rational被限制了。而且2,的信息也不全，其只有iie，沒有mial。但由于原句中aial與mial相對應(yīng)，所以3也可以接受。Theword"attributes"inthepassageisclosestinmeaning

Fantasyisoneofthemorecommontechniquesinadvertisingthatcouldpossiblymisleadayoungaudience.Child-orientedadvertisementsaremorelikelytoincludemagicandfantasythanadvertisementsaimedatadults.Inacontent ysisofCanadianevision,theauhorStephenKlineobservedthatnearlyallcommercialsforcharactertoysfeaturedfantasyy.Childrenhavestrongimaginationsandtheuseoffantasybringstheirideastolife,butchildrenmaynotbeadeptenoughtorealizethatwhattheyareviewingisunreal.Fantasysituationsandsettingsarefrequentlyusedtoattractchildren'sattention,particularlyinfoodadverising.Adverisementsforbreakfastcerealshave,formanyyears,beenfoundtobeespeciallyfondoffantasytechniques,withalmostnineoutoftenincludingsuchcontent.Generally,thereisuncertaintyastowhetherveryyoungchildrencandistinguishbetweenfantasyandrealityinadvertising.Certainly,rationalappealsinadvertisingaimedatchildrenarelimited,asmostadvertisementsuseemotionalandindirectappealstopsychologicalstatesorassociations.第三段：：的另一個(gè)慣用伎倆——fantasy。Inparagraph4,whydoesheauhormentionashowaboutacartoonlionwhichanadverisementappearsfeaturingthesamelionTohelpexinwhatismeantbytheterm"hostselling”andwhyitcanbemisleadingtochildrenToexinwhytheroleofcelebriiesinadvertisingaimedatchildrenhasoftenbeenconfusedwihhostsellingTocomparetheeffectivenessofusinganimatedfigureswithheeffectivenessofusingcelebriiesinadvertisementsaimedatchildrenToindicatehowKunkelfirstbecameinterestedinstudyingtheeffectsofhostsellingonchildrenTheword"credible”inhepassageisclosestinmeaning詞匯題。糾結(jié)原因：由于不確定，回到原文對應(yīng)后。又開始用上下文翻譯來理解了。不能用翻譯！要用上下文定位！記住，人的思維沒有跳躍。首先是句內(nèi)。然后是前后句！

Theuseofcelebritiessuchassingersandmoviestarsiscommoninadvertising.Theintentionisforhepositivelyperceivedattributesofthecelebritytobetransferredtotheadvertisedproductandforhetwoto eautomaticallylinkedinheaudience'smind.Inchildren'sadvertising,hecelebritiesareoftenanimatedfiguresfrompopularcartoons.Intherecentpast,heroleofcelebritiesinadvertisingtochildrenhasoftenbeenconflatedwithheconceptofhostselling.Hostsellinginvolvesblendingadverisementswithregularprogramminginawaythatmakesitdifficulttodisinguishonefromheother.Hostsellingoccurs,forexample,whenachildren'sshowaboutacartoonlioncontainsanadinwhichthesamelionpromotesabreakfastcereal.ThepsychologistDaleKunkelshowedthatthepraciceofhostsellingreducedchildren'sabilitytodistinguishbetweenadverisingandprogrammaterial.Itwasalsofoundhatolderchildrenrespondedmorepositivelytoproductsinhostsellingadverisements.第四段：的第三個(gè)伎倆——名人及某一具體的方法論hostsellingAccordingtoparagraph5,whatdidastudyofchildreninHongKongshowabouttheuseofcelebritiesinadvertisementsaimedatchildren?ItismosteffecivewithchildrenwhowatchalotofIthaslittleeffectifthecelebritiesarenotfamiliartomostItismoreeffectiveinmarkeingcerealsandfoodproductsthaninmarkeingotherkindsofproducts.ItcanhaveanegaiveeffectifhecelebriiesarenotpopularwithParagraph3:■Fantasyisoneofthemorecommontechniquesinadvertisingthatcouldpossiblymisleadayoungaudience.■Child-orientedadvertisementsaremorelikelytoincludemagicandfantasythanadvertisementsaimedatadults.■InacontentysisofCanadianevision,theauthorStephenKlineobservedthatnearlyallcommercialsforcharactertoysfeaturedfantasyy.■Childrenhavestrongimaginaionsandheuseoffantasybringsheirideastolife,butchildrenmaynotbeadeptenoughtorealizehatwhattheyareviewingisunreal.Fantasysituationsandsetingsarefrequentlyusedtoattractchildren'sattention,particularlyinfoodadvertising.Adverisementsforbreakfastcerealshave,formanyyears,beenfoundtobeespeciallyfondoffantasytechniques,withalmostnineoutoftenincludingsuchcontent.Generally,thereisuncertaintyastowhetherveryyoungchildrencandistinguishbetweenfantasyandrealityinadvertising.Certainly,rationalappealsinadvertisingaimedatchildrenarelimited,asadverisementsuseemoionalandindirectappealstopsychologicalstatesorLookatthefoursquares[■]hatindicatewherehefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.AnotheraspectofadvertisingthatmayespeciallyinfluencechildrenWherewouldthesentencebestfit?ClickonasquaretoaddthesentencetotheDirections:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofhepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecauseheyexpressideashatnotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Advertiserssometimesusestrategiesthatcanmislead●●●AnswerAdvertisementscanbemisleadingtochildrenwhentheadvertisementsuseaudioandvisualformatsthatareespeciallyappealingtochildren.細(xì)節(jié)且錯(cuò)誤Childrenmaynotbeabletointerpretexaggeratedclaimsmadebyadverisersorunderstandthediersusedtooffsetclaims.Althoughtheuseofcelebriiesisnotnecessarilyeffeciveinadverisementsaimedatchildren,hereisevidencethathostsellingcanposiivelyaffecttheirviewsofaproduct.Studiesshowthatmisleadingtacticsareusedmostoftenincommercialsforbreakfastcereals,withtoycommercialsusingsuchtacicsonlyslightlylessfrequently.太細(xì)節(jié)了。Theuseoffantasyisespeciallycommoninadvertisementsforchildren,butchildrenmaynotbeabletodisinguishfantasyfromreality.Veryyoungchildrenareparicularlyinfluencedbyhostselling,whileslighlyolderchildrenaremorereadilymisledbyseeminglyrationalclaimssuchas'thebest."胡亂整合文中信息。

Regardingtheappearanceofcelebritiesinadverisementshatdonotinvolvehostselling,heevidenceismixed.ResearcherCharlesAtkinfoundhatchildrenbelievethatthecharactersusedtoadvertisebreakfastcerealsareknowledgeableaboutcereals,andchildrenacceptsuchcharactersascrediblesourcesofnutritionalinformation.Thisfindingwasevenmoremarkedforheavyviewersofevision.Inaddition,childrenfeelvalidatedintheirchoiceofaproductwhenacelebrityendorsesthatproduct.AstudyofchildreninHongKong,however,foundthatthepresenceofcelebriiesinadvertisementscouldnegativelyaffectthechildren’sperceptionsofaproductifthechildrendidnotlikethecelebrityinquesion. ..4.兒童信任中的商業(yè)，并且商因利用這種信任背景的有利條件常常受到指責(zé)。英國電視的調(diào)節(jié)者獨(dú)立電視批評商的誤導(dǎo)---無論是有意還是無意的情況下創(chuàng)造了一個(gè)錯(cuò)誤的印象---即商盡量控制對技術(shù)的使用，這樣使兒人們普遍關(guān)心商夸大其詞的誤導(dǎo)策略。消費(fèi)者保護(hù)組織和家長們相信孩子們大部分的不具備識別這種技巧的能力，并且他們相信這種夸大掩蓋了相關(guān)產(chǎn)品信息。聲稱這是“最好的”或“比什么好”都是的和誤導(dǎo)。即使是成年人也許也不能確定他們的意思。它們代表了客戶對產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量或品牌的觀點(diǎn)，因此，它們很難被核實(shí)。商有時(shí)通過補(bǔ)償或者免責(zé)的形式來平衡一個(gè)夸大的說辭。舉個(gè)例子，聲稱早餐食用谷物食品對健康是有益的可能會附帶一個(gè)免責(zé) “當(dāng)早餐被部分營養(yǎng)平衡時(shí)”。然而，研究發(fā)現(xiàn)兒童常常對理解免責(zé)有 ：兒童解釋“當(dāng)早餐被部分營養(yǎng)平衡時(shí)”為谷類食物是均衡早餐營養(yǎng)的必需成份。作者erCsck在六歲到八歲之間的兒童，其中少于四分之一的兒童理解了用于大數(shù)的玩具中的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的免責(zé)。同時(shí)，當(dāng)免責(zé)以聲音和視覺的形式同時(shí)出現(xiàn)時(shí)是容易被理解的。然而，它們多是以聲音的形式出現(xiàn)。中的幻想是一種非常常見的技術(shù)以此來誤導(dǎo)一個(gè)年輕的觀眾。面向兒童的比面向成年的更有可能包含了魔力和 部分。通過分析的電視內(nèi)容，作者Sepenkie注意到幾乎所有的角色玩具 中都以幻想劇為出發(fā)點(diǎn)。兒童有著豐富的想象力，運(yùn)用想象力把他們的想法帶入了生活，但是兒童也許不能熟練的認(rèn)識到他們所看到的并不是真實(shí)的。想象力的環(huán)境和背景常常用于吸引兒童的注意力，特別是食物 。多年以來，早餐食用谷類食物的，被認(rèn)為是特別喜愛運(yùn)用想象力的技術(shù) ，幾乎十家有九家包含了這樣的內(nèi)容。一般的來看，幼童區(qū)別中的幻想和現(xiàn)實(shí)部分存在著不確定性。當(dāng)然，當(dāng)大部分的 對兒童運(yùn)用情感 中常常使用名人如歌星和。目的是將感知到的對名人的積極評價(jià)轉(zhuǎn)移為對我們所的產(chǎn)品的評價(jià)，使兩者在觀眾的腦海中自動(dòng)的變得有聯(lián)系。在兒童的中，名人常常是扮演卡通中的著名人物。最近幾年，對兒童來說名人在中的作用已經(jīng)與卡通主角銷售混為一談了。主角銷售需要通過法來混合常規(guī)形式的以此使兩者區(qū)別開來比較。舉一個(gè)出現(xiàn)主角銷售的例子，當(dāng)一個(gè)兒童展示一個(gè)中出現(xiàn)的卡通獅子時(shí)，則該獅子也在售賣谷類早餐。心理學(xué)家DeKkel主角銷售的實(shí)踐減弱了兒童區(qū)別和實(shí)物本質(zhì)的能力。同樣發(fā)現(xiàn)，年齡較大的兒童對主角銷售的反應(yīng)較大。關(guān)于名人在中的出現(xiàn)并不涉及主角銷售的是復(fù)雜的。研究員CaesAkin發(fā)現(xiàn)兒童相信谷物早餐中使用的卡通人物對谷物是很了解的，并且，兒童接受這樣的卡通人物，認(rèn)為它們是營養(yǎng)信息的可靠來源。這一發(fā)現(xiàn)對沉溺電視的觀眾是一標(biāo)示。另外，當(dāng)名人贊同某一個(gè)產(chǎn)品并且兒童也選擇這個(gè)產(chǎn)品時(shí)，兒童會感覺產(chǎn)品有效果。然而，在對兒童的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，如果兒童不喜歡當(dāng)下的名人，名人在中的出現(xiàn)可能使兒童對該產(chǎn)品的看法變得影響。WhydoesheauthorcallheMayanhomelandbotha“seasonaltropical”and"seasonaldesert”?ToillustratehowtheclimateoftheMayanhomelandvariedfromregiontoToexinhowtheclimateoftheMayanhomelandissimilartothatofajungleortropicalrainToemphasizehevastsizeoftheareathatcomprisedtheMayanhomelandinancienttimesTomakehepointhattheMayanhomelandisclimaticallymorecomplexisgenerallyWhichofthefollowingisNOTmenionedinparagraph2asadifferencebetweenthenorhernandsouhernYucatanPeninsula?TheannualrainfallwasgreaterintheThepopulaiondensitywaslowerinheAgriculturalproductivitywasgreaterinheRainfallwasmoreunpredictableandvariableinthesou

landsurfaceinhesouhissohighabovehewaterWhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutheavailabilityofwaterintheMayanWhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutancientandmodemagricultureintheYucatanPeninsulaissupportedbyparagraph2?ModernagriculturalmehodshavesolvedmanyoftheancientproblemsoffarmingintheYucatanPeninsula.AncientMayanfarmersmayhavebeensomewhatmoresuccessfulatfarmingintheYucatanPeninsulahanfarmersaretoday.FarmingtodayiseasierthaninthepastbecauseenvironmentalchangesintheYucatanPeninsulahaveincreasedavailablerainfallTheYucatansoilsinwhichancientfarmersworkedwerericher,moreproducandhickerhantheyaretoday.Theword"paradoxically”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningThephrase“Thelikelyexnation"inthepassagereferstoheexnaionforthesouthernMayaareasreceivedmorerainfallhanthenorhernmodernarchaeologistshavedifficultyunderstandingancientwaterproblemsweremostsevereinthewetsouMayaWaterhathatistodaysouhernMexicoandCentralAmericaandTounderstandtheancientMayanpeoplewholivedintheheyfaced,onemustfirstconsidertheirenvironment,whichwethinkof“jungle"or'tropicalrain ."Thisviewisinaccurate,andthereasonprovestobeimportant.Properlyspeaking,tropicalrainsgrowinhigh-rainfallequatorialareashatremainwetorhumidallyearround.ButtheMayahomelandliesmorethansixteenhundredkilometersfromheequator,atlatitudes17to22degreesnorh,inahabitattermeda“seasonaltropical."Thatis,whiletheredoestendtobearainyseasonfromMaytoOctober,thereisalsoadryseasonfromJanuarythroughApril.Ifonefocusesonthewetmonths,onecallstheMayahomelanda"seasonaltropical";ifonefocusesonthedrymonths,onecouldinsteaddescribeitasa"seasonalFromnorhtosouthintheYucatanPeninsula,wheretheMayalivedrainfallrangesfrom18to100inches(457to2,540millimeters)peryear,andthesoils ethicker,sothatthesouthernpeninsulawasagriculturallymoreproduciveandsupporteddenserpopulations.ButrainfallinheMayahomelandisunpredictablyvariablebetweenyears;somerecentyearshavehadthreeorfourtimesmorerainthanoheryears.Asaresult,modernfarmersattemptingtogrowcornintheancientMayahomelandshavefacedfrequentcropfailures,especiallyinhenorh.TheancientMayawerepresumablymoreexperiencedanddidbetter,butneverthelesstheytoomusthavefacedrisksofcropfailuresfromdroughtsandAlthoughsouthemMayaareasreceivedmorerainfallthannorhernareas,problemsofwaterwereparadoxicallymoresevereinthewetsouh.WhilethatmadehingshardforancientMayalivinginthesouthithasalsomadethingshardformodemarchaeologistswhohavedifficultyunderstandingwhyancientdroughtscausedbiggerproblemsinthewetsouththaninthedrynorh.ThelikelyexnationisthatanareaofundergroundfreshwaterunderliesheYucatanPeninsula,butsurfaceelevationincreasesfromnorhtosouh,sothatasonemovessouthhehomelandissupportedbyparagraphTheconstructionofwellswasan monpracticeinboththenorthandthesouhbecauseitwastoodifficulttodigthroughthekarst.Inmostareasinthenorthandthesouth,rainwaterwasabsorbeddirectlyintotheporouskarst.ThewatertablewasanimportantresourceforagricultureinboththenorthandthesouhofheYucatanPeninsula,Thelackofsurfacewaterinboththenorthandthesouthwasprobablyduetothefacthatmostofitwasquicklyusedupforagriculturalpurposes.Accordingtoparagraph3,whywashesouhernMayanhomelandhardtoThepresenceofnumeroussinkholesandwellsinterferedwithSouhernsoilackedthedepthcropsneededforgrowUndergroundwaterwastoofarbelowhesurfacetoThepresenceofkarstcausedfrequent8Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformaioninthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangehemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.SouhernMayapopulaionsobtainedthewaterheyneededforthedryseasonbycollectingandstoringrainwaterinsealeddepressions.TheMayaarecreditedwithcreatingmethodsformodifyingnaturalrainwaterandstoringit.Leaksinthekarscauseddifficultiesinthecreaionofreservoirs,whichwereneededtostorewaterforthedryseason.SouhernMayansweremoresuccessfulatcollectingrainthanstoringitduringdryseasons.句子簡化題。抓住原句的主干。即使看不懂，也可以從原文幾個(gè)動(dòng)作中，大致知道在做什么。關(guān)鍵還是仔細(xì)讀！！Whatcanbeinferredfromparagraph4abouthowresidentsofTikalmettheirneedsforwaterandfoodduringmostperiodsofdrought?Theydependeduponwaterandfoodthathadbeenstoredforuseduringhedryseason.TheyobtaineddrinkingwaterandwaterforcropirrigationfromCobaTheylocatedheirpopulaioncentersnearalakewherewaterwasavailablefordnnkingandwateringcrops.Theymovedlocationsevery18monhstofindnewcrondsandwatersources.Theword"prolonged"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningTheword"exhausted"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningusedreliedParagraph1:TounderstandtheancientMayanpeoplewholivedintheareathatistodaysouhernMexicoandCentralAmericaandtheecologicaldifficultiestheyfaced,onemustfirstconsidertheirenvironment,whichwethinkofas“jungle"or'tropicalrain."■Thisviewisinaccurate,andthereasonprovestobeimportant.■Properlyspeaking,tropicalrainsgrowinhigh-rainfallequatorialareasthatremainwetorhumidallyearround.ButtheMayahomelandliesmorethansixteenhundredkilometersfromtheequator,atlatitudes17to22degreesnorth,inahabitattermeda“seasonaltropical."■Thatis,whiletheredoestendtobearainyseasonfromMaytoOctober,hereisalsoadryseasonfromJanuarythroughApril.Ifonefocusesonthewetmonths,onecallsheMayahomelanda"seasonaltropical";ifonefocusesonthedrymonhs,onecouldinsteaddescribeitasa"seasonaldesert.”■Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherehefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.ThedifferencebetweenthetwoclimateschallengedtheMayawhohaddealwithWherewouldthesentencebestfit?ClickonasquaretoaddthesentencetotheDirections:SelectfromthesevenphrasesbelowthephrasesthatcorreclycharacterizethesouhernMayanhomelandandthephrasesthatcorrectlycharacterizethenorthernMayanhomeland.Drageachphraseyouselectintotheappropriatecolumnofthetable.TwoofthephraseswillNOTbeused.Thisquestionisworth3points.SouthernMayan134NorhernMayan57Answer○Cityof?！餒ighabovewater○Used○ObtainedwaterfromDramaticallyimprovedcorncrops○Hadcomparativelyhinlayerof

landsurfaceliesincreasinglyhigherabovehewatertable.nhenorhernpeninsulatheelevationissufficientlylowhatheancientMayawereabletoreachthewatertableatdeepsinkholescalledcenotes,oratdeepcaves.Inlow-elevationnorthcoastalareaswihoutsinkholes,theMayawouldhavebeenabletogetdowntohewatertablebydiggingwellsupto75feet(22meters)deep.Butmuchofhesouthliestoohighabovethewatertableforcenotesorwellstoreachdowntoit.Makingmattersworse,mostofheYucatanPeninsulaconsistsofkarst,aporoussponge-likelimestoneterrainwhererainrunsstraightintohegroundandwherelitleornosurfacewaterremainsavailable.HowdidthosedensesouhernMayapopulationsdealwiththeresultingwaterproblem?Itinitiallysurprisesusthatmanyoftheirciieswerenotbuiltnexttoheriversbutinsteadonhighterraininrollingunds.Theex nationisthattheMayaexcavateddepressions,ormodifiednaturaldepressions,andthenpluggedupleaksinthekarstby steringthebottomsofthedepressionsinordertocreatereservoirs,whichcollectedrainfromlargesteredcat entbasinsandstoreditforuseinthedryseason.Forexample,reservoirsatheMayacityofTikalheldenoughwatertomeethedrinkingwaterneedsofabout10,000peopleforaperiodof18months.AthecityofCobatheMayabuiltdikesaroundalakeinordertoraiseitslevelandmaketheirwatersupplymorereliable.ButheinhabitantsofTikalandotherciiesdependentonreservoirsfordrinkingwaterwouldstillhavebeenindeeptroubleif18monthspassedwihoutraininaprolongeddrought.Ashorterdroughtinwhichtheyexhaustedtheirstoredfoodsmightalreadyhavegottenhemindeeptrouble,becausegrowingcropsrequiredrainratherthanreservoirs..2.○1,3,5,為了了解 今天南墨西哥和中地區(qū)的古瑪雅人種以及他們所面對的生態(tài)困境，那么 須先研究他們的環(huán)境，也就是今天我們所謂的“叢林”或者“熱帶雨林”。這種觀點(diǎn)雖然不是很準(zhǔn)確，但是環(huán)境因素的意義還是很重要的。嚴(yán)格意義上講，熱帶雨林生長在赤道附近常年保持潮濕的多雨地區(qū)。但是瑪雅的故地是在離赤道六百多公里的北緯7-2度之間，也就是通常所說的“季節(jié)性熱帶雨林”里。也就是說，這個(gè)地區(qū)在五月到十月是雨季，而在一月到4月又是旱季。如果是關(guān)注濕季的話，可以說瑪雅的故地是一個(gè)“季節(jié)性叢林”，如果關(guān)注旱季的話，那瑪雅的故地就可以替換并解釋為“季節(jié)性沙漠”了?，斞湃怂幼〉挠瓤ㄌ箯哪舷虮钡哪杲邓渴菑?8英寸到100英寸毫米）逐級遞增的，而且土地也是逐級加厚，所以南部的農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)力相對較高，相伴隨的也就能養(yǎng)的人。不過雅故地的跨年降量的變化程度不可預(yù)測的。一些年份的降雨次數(shù)要比其他年份的多三到四次。正因如此，當(dāng)現(xiàn)代的弄明打算在古瑪雅人的故地種植棉花的時(shí)候就經(jīng)常會種植，尤其是在的北部。古瑪雅人也許更有經(jīng)驗(yàn)也做得更好，但是不管怎么說他們都必須面對旱災(zāi)和颶風(fēng)而導(dǎo)致的顆粒無收的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。盡管瑪雅故地的南部比之北部有的降雨，但是在潮濕的南方，水資源問題的矛盾性要更加。古代南部生活的瑪雅人所的麻煩，在今天也困擾著現(xiàn)古學(xué)家，他們想不通為什么古代的旱災(zāi)的影響在濕潤的南方要比干旱的北方大。一種可能季節(jié)是尤卡坦的水資源的區(qū)域是傾斜的，但是地表的上升幅度要低于古瑪雅人能挖到的含水層的排水口，叫做“coe”,或者叫含水層。較低高度的北方沿海地區(qū)沒有白稅控，瑪雅人應(yīng)該可以借助鑿井到達(dá)5英尺（2米）深的水含水層。但是南方想要通過排水口或是鑿井來到大含水層的話，深度就要深得多。更的是，尤卡坦是由水濁石灰?guī)r構(gòu)成的，一種多孔海綿型就石灰?guī)r地域，當(dāng)雨水來臨時(shí)水會筆直的流入地底并不在地表留下任何水分。那么南部如此密集的瑪雅人是如何應(yīng)對水資源問題的呢？起初最令我們驚訝的是瑪雅的一些城市并不是建在河邊的而是建在旋轉(zhuǎn)與會的高地上的。之所以這么做是因?yàn)楝斞湃碎_鑿或者改造自然的低地，與此同時(shí)通過粉刷低地的地步來堵住水蝕石灰?guī)r的的裂口，再用它來做成水庫收集雨水以備旱季之用。比如說，位于瑪雅太卡城的水庫的出水量可以供人在超長無雨的旱季喝上個(gè)月。即使是較短的旱季他們耗費(fèi)掉所的食物供應(yīng)或許已經(jīng)成為更次的問題，因?yàn)樽魑锏纳L需要雨水要遠(yuǎn)比水庫的多。Theword“prestige”inthepassageisclosestinmeaning

ToemphasizehefrequencywithwhichIndo-EuropeanlanguageschangedasaresultofthenatureofpastoralismToindicateonemethodlinguistsusetodeterminethatinhabitantsofheDonAccordingtoparagraph1,whatmadeitpossibleforInnerEurasianpastoralismto ethemostandmilitaristicformofpastoralism?ItinvolvedthedomesticationofseveraltypesofItwasbasedprimarilyonhorsesratherhanonotherItborrowedandimproveduponEuropeanideasformobilityandItcouldbeadaptedtoawidevarietyofTheword"profound”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningInparagraph2,whydoestheauthorcontrastpastoralistswithToexinwhypastoralismrequiresmorelandthanagriculturalismtosupportbasicneedsToidenifysomeadvantagesthatsocieieshaveoverimsocieTodemonstratethatecologicalprinciplesthatapplytopastoralismdonotapplytoagriculturalismToarguethatagriculturalismeventuallydevelopedoutofAccordingtoparagraph2,pastoraliststendprefergrazingheiranimalsonagriculturalconsumecomparativelylargeamountsoffoodandavoid ntmove cetoceInparagraph3,whydoestheauthordiscusslanguagesspokenintheregionspanningfromEasternEuropetothewestembordersofMongolia?PastoralisminAncientInnerPastoralismPastoralismisalifestyleinwhicheconomicacivityis

primarilylivestock.Archaeologicalevidencesuggestshatby3000B.C.,andperhapsevenearlier,therehademergedonthesteppesofInnerEurasiathedistinctivetypesofpastoralismhatweretodominatetheregion'shistoryforseveralmillennia.Here,hehorsewasalready ingtheanimalofprestigeinmanyregions,houghsheep,goats,andcattlecouldalsoyavitalrole.ItistheuseofhorsesfortransportationandwarfarethatexinswhyInnerEurasianpastoralismprovedhemost andthemostmilitaristicofallmajorformsofpastoralism.TheemergenceandspreadofpastoralismhadaprofoundimpactonhehistoryofInnerEurasia,andalso,indirectly,onthepartsofAsiaandEuropejustoutsidethisarea.Inparicular,pastoralismfavorsa lifestyle,andthismobilityhelpstoexintheimpactofpastoralistsocietiesonhispartoftheworld.Themobilityofpastoralistsocieiesreflectstheirdependenceonanimal-basedfoods.Whileagriculturalistsrelyondomesticatedntspastoralistsrelyondomesticatedanimals.Asaresult,pastoralists,likecarnivoresingeneral,occupyahigherposiiononthefoodchainAllelsebeingequal,hismeanstheymustexploitlargerareasoflandthandoagriculturaliststosecurehesameamountoffood,clothing,andothernecessities.Sopastoralismisamoreextensivelifewayhanfarmingis.However,helargertheterrainusedtosupportagroup,theharderitistoexploitthatterrainwhileremaininginonece.So,basicecologicalprinciplesimplyastrongtendencywihinpastoralistlifewaystowardnomadism(a lifestyle).AsthearchaeologistRogerCribbputsit,'Thegreaterthedegreeofpastoralism,thestrongerthetendencytowardnomadism.'AmodernTurkicnomadinterviewedbyCribbcommented:"Themoreanimalsyouhavethefarheryouhavetomove.andDnieperriverareahadtakenupstockProvideevidencehaIndo-EuropeanlanguageshavetheirrootsinwhatisnowTurkeyToprovideevidencehatpastorahstsocietiescanexerciseculturalinfluenceoveralargearea7Theword"striking”inhepassageisclosestinmeaning8Theword"exploit”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningusetodepartpayattentiontravel詞匯題。直接首先從近義詞考慮?。?！怎么又回到最初的問題了！這里只是在考詞匯??！實(shí)在不行才回到原文！能相信第一感覺的話盡量相信第一感覺！Accordingtoparagraph4,thefactthatpastoralistcommunitiesaresubjectto“strictrulesofportability”encouragessuchcommunitiestorelocatelessfrequenlythantheywouldhavehouseholdsthataremoreorlessequalineself-sufficientinthemanufactureofsilkandsharelargematerialsurpluseswihneighboringAccord