英語畢業(yè)論文-A-Study-on-the-Cultural-Translation

英語畢業(yè)論文：A

Study

on

the

Cultural

Translation[Abstract]The

Analects,

as

the

most

important

Confucian

classic

recording,

whose

translation

has

long

been

of

immense

importance

to

cultural

exchange

between

the

East

and

the

West.

So

it

is

meaningful

to

study

on

which

kind

of

method

used

in

the

process

of

cultural

translation

is

much

better

in

transmitting

Chinese

culture

to

western

society,

to

let

foreigners

learn

and

understand

the

inner

value

of

Confucianism.[Key

Words]cultural

translation;

communicative

translation;

semantic

translation;

The

Analects1.

Brief

Introduction

to

The

Analects

Lun

Yu,

the

most

influential

and

enduring

Chinese

classic,

is

also

known

as

The

Analects,

the

Analects

of

Confucius,

or

the

Confucian

Analects,

which

shows

its

splendor

as

early

as

2,400

years

ago

between

the

Spring

and

Autumn

and

the

Warring

States

periods.

Covering

a

wide

scope

of

subjects

from

politics,

philosophy,

literature,

and

art

to

education

and

moral

cultivation,

The

Analects

is

the

earliest

and

most

reliable

source

on

the

life

and

teachings

of

the

sage,

The

Analects,

is

regarded

by

the

Chinese

as

the

basic

scripture

of

Confucianism.

Compiled

by

his

disciples,

The

Analects

recorded

the

saying

and

deeds

of

the

great

sage

and

his

disciples.

2.

About

Communicative

and

Semantic

Translation

Theory

In

order

to

narrow

the

disparity

between

literal

translation

and

free

translation,

Peter

Newmark

put

forward

two

modes

of

translation,

which

were

named

as

communicative

translation

and

semantic

translation.

The

former

combines

the

advantages

of

adaptation,

free

translation,

and

idiomatic

translation,

while

the

latter

contains

the

merits

of

word

for

word

translation,

literary

translation,

and

faithful

translation.According

to

communicative

translation

theory,

translation

is

a

process

of

communication,

which

requires

the

translator

do

his

best

to

transfer

the

source

language

culture

into

target

language

culture.

When

transplanting

a

passage

on

another

cultural

background,

great

effort

should

be

made

to

get

the

target

reader

understand

and

share

the

same

thinking

world

of

the

original

author.

Generally,

a

communicative

translation

is

likely

to

be

smoother,

simpler,

clearer,

more

direct,

more

conventional,

conforming

to

a

particular

register

of

language,

tending

to

undertranslate,

i.e.

to

use

more

generic,

hold-all

terms

in

difficult

passages.

However,

for

semantic

translation,

it

attempts

to

render,

as

closely

as

the

semantic

and

syntactic

structures

of

the

second

language

allow

the

exact

contextual

meaning

of

the

original.

A

semantic

translation

tends

to

be

more

complex,

more

awkward,

more

detailed,

more

concentrated,

and

pursues

the

thought-processes

rather

than

the

intention

of

the

transmitter.

It

tends

to

overtranslate,

to

be

more

specific

than

the

original,

to

include

more

meanings

in

its

search

for

one

nuance

of

meaning.3.

Analysis

of

the

Translation

of

Culture-loaded

Terms

in

The

Analects

Translation

is

not

only

a

kind

of

linguistic

activity

but

also

a

kind

of

cultural

interaction,

and

thus

cultural

differences

exert

great

influence

on

translation,

Eugine

Nida(2001:82)said,

“the

master

of

the

two

cultures

is

much

more

important

than

that

of

the

languages.”

Almost

every

part

of

life

reflects

the

culture

of

a

nation

because

every

country

has

its

own

history

in

the

development

of

social

institution

cultures,

religion

brief

and

customs.

Thus

every

culture

has

its

vocabulary

and

that

is

the

culture-loaded

vocabulary.

The

Analects

of

Confucius

is

not

only

a

philosophical

work,

but

also

a

literary

work

that

reflects

the

social

and

historical

facts

of

Confucius’

times

and

thus

the

audiences

are

rained

upon

with

many

specific

things.3.1

Translation

of

Proper

Name‘Proper

names

refer

to

persons,

living

creatures,

places,

institutions,

objects

or

processes

that

are

peculiar

to

a

single

cultural

community.

In

most

cases

they

have

singular

references.’

(Newmark)

In

this

part

the

study

on

the

cultural

translation

of

names

appears

in

the

analects

of

Confucius

will

be

dealt

with

in

two

different

ways:

names

of

person

and

names

of

philosophical

meaning.3.1.1

Name

of

ConfuciusBecause

The

Analects

is

in

the

form

of

conversation,

it

is

of

great

importance

to

clarify

different

people’s

name

to

make

out

which

sentence

is

said

by

which

person.

Throughout

the

whole

passage,

the

ideas

presented

by

Confucius

consists

most

of

the

work.

Therefore,

the

proper

translation

of

the

most

frequent

expression

in

The

Analects,

that

is,

‘子曰’

takes

the

priority

to

other

names.

A

glimpse

at

the

various

rending

of

‘子曰’

will

reveal

how

different

translation

methods

influence

the

target

text.Eg1:

子曰：“學(xué)而時(shí)習(xí)之，不亦悅乎？”Version1：Confucius

said:

“Isn’t

it

a

pleasure

for

one

to

learn

and

then

constantly

review

and

practice

what

he

has

already

learned?”Version2:

The

Master

said:

“Is

it

not

pleasant

to

learn

with

a

constant

perseverance

and

application?”In

ancient

China,

people

called

the

males

they

respected

as

“子”,

which

usually

followed

the

family

name,

such

as

“孔子”.

Chinese

people

knows

that“子”here

is

“孔子”,

but

its

interpretations

are

still

various:

“Confucius”

and

“the

Master”.

To

call

“孔子”

as

“Confucius”

accords

with

the

Western

tradition

where

people

are

called

by

their

names

without

any

title.

The

first

version

follows

communicative

translation

theory,

rendering

“孔子”

into

Confucius

obviously

for

the

sake

of

Western

readers.

On

the

contrary,

Chinese

do

not

call

“孔子”

directly,

but

just

use

one

word

“子”

in

order

to

show

respect

to

him.

This

is

also

a

kind

of

Chinese

culture.

The

second

version

followed

semantic

translation

rule,

rendering

“子”

into

‘the

Master’

in

order

to

express

the

relationship

between

“孔子”

and

his

students

to

show

Chinese

culture

to

the

target

readers.

Although

this

kind

of

semantic

translation

is

unfamiliar

to

western

readers,

it

could

help

them

to

have

a

better

understanding

of

the

content,

style,

and

intention

of

the

original

author.3.1.2

Names

of

Confucius’

disciplesIt

is

said

that

Confucius

taught

while

traveling

and

had

more

than

3000

disciples

in

different

states.

Of

the

some

3000

disciples

there

are

seventy-two

disciples

recorded

to

be

famous

ones.

They

were

of

different

birth,

had

different

positions

and

more

importantly,

were

of

different

virtues.

Each

of

them

had

a

unique

name,

so

it

is

helpful

if

the

audiences

can

understand

them.

Those

who

were

mentioned

many

times

in

The

Analects

could

be

very

important

for

Confucian

school

in

different

ways.

In

this

case,

different

translators

use

various

methods

to

translate

their

names.Eg2:

子曰：“吾與回言終日，不違，如愚……”

曾子曰:

“吾日三省吾身。”

有子曰:

“禮之用，和為貴。”Three

of

Confucius’

favorite

disciples---

“回”(hui),

“曾子”(zengzi),

and

“有子”(youzi)

appeared

in

these

examples.

One

method

used

for

rendering

Confucius’

disciples’

names

is

to

transliterate

in

Pinyin

according

to

their

pronunciation.

For

example,

“子夏”

as

“Zixia”.

Here

“回”

refers

to

“顏回”,

styled

子淵，so

it

can

be

rendered

as

“Yen

Hui”

or

“Hui”.

This

kind

of

communicative

translation

confirms

the

tradition

of

western

people,

to

call

others

name

directly,

without

consideration

of

their

status.

To

western

reader,

it

is

easier

for

them

to

remember

and

understand.The

disciples

ranked

with

“子”

are

translated

as

Master

Yu/You

“有子”,

and

Master

Tseng/Zeng

“曾子”,

in

respect

who

were

Confucius’

prominent

disciples

and

later

became

significant

teachers

in

the

Confucian

school

after

Confucius’

death.

This

semantic

translation,

which

was

adopted

by

many

translators,

is

regarded

as

the

most

suitable

one.

While

in

some

other

version,

“有子”

and

“曾子”

are

translated

as

“The

philosopher

You”

and

“The

philosopher

Zeng”.

These

two

methods

more

accord

with

Chinese

tradition,

using

semantic

strategy

to

reproduce

the

polite

image

of

Chinese

people.

3.2

Translation

of

Cultural

ImagesCultural

image

is

an

integrative

part

of

culture.

All

the

images

connected

with

social

and

religious

culture

such

as

a

special

thing,

an

allusion,

an

animal

etc

will

challenge

translators.

A

cultural

classic

such

as

The

Analects

is

abundant

with

cultural

images,

so

how

to

transfer

them

or

transfer

their

meanings

is

a

vital

problem.

And

now,

we

will

discuss

from

the

image

of

religious

culture.3.2.1

Religious

Cultural

ImagesEg5:

子入太廟，每事問。Version1:

The

Master,

when

he

entered

grand

temple,

asked

about

every

thing.Version2:

When

Confucius

first

attended

the

service

at

the

State

Cathedral

(Ancestral

TempleVersion

1

abided

by

semantic

translation

that

rendered

“taimiao”(太廟)

into

“grand

temple”,

which

retained

literal

meaning

as

well

as

extended

some

cultural

message

to

the

target

audience.

While

version

2

turned

to

communicative

translation

that

employed

“Great

Cathedral”

with

strong

color

of

Western

religion,

in

which

Western

religion

took

the

place

of

ancient

Chinese

tradition.

“Great

Cathedral”

is

totally

different

from

“taimiao”,

which,

in

ancient

China,

is

the

state

temple

for

the

first

reigning

emperor.

This

image

implies

the

ancestor

of

our

Chinese

people.

This

is

one

of

the

most

obvious

and

controversial

characteristics

of

version2,

that

is,

it

regards

Confucianism

as

a

religion,

Ku

said,

“Confucianism,

without

being

a

religion

can

take

the

place

of

religion.

Therefore,

there

must

be

something

in

Confucianism

which

can

give

to

the

mass

of

mankind

the

same

sense

of

security

and

permanence

which

religion

affords

them.”

(Ku

Hunming,

1998:23)

In

his

opinion,

Confucianism

is

of

the

same

value

as

Western

religious

sayings

but

not

the

same

nature.In

a

sense,

the

grand

temple

and

the

State

Cathedral,

although

both

refer

to

religious

places3.2.2

Social

Cultural

ImagesEg6:

孟懿子問孝。子曰：“無違。”Version1:

Meng

Yi

asked

what

filial

piety

was.

The

Master

said,

“It

is

not

being

disobedient.”

Version2:

Meng

Yi

asked

about

the

treatment

of

parents.

The

Master

said,

“Never

disobey!”Version1

obeyed

semantic

translation

theory,

translating

the

cultural

image

xiao（孝）as

“filial

piety”,

while

version2

is

much

simply,

just

communicatively

rendered

into

“the

treatment

of

parents”.

As

one

aspect

of

social

ritual

at

that

time,

xiao

is

honored

by

Chinese

people

as

a

traditional

virtue

for

thousands

of

years.

As

an

old

sayings

goes,

“Filial

piety

ranks

the

first

of

all

virtues”,

being

xiao

is

not

only

referring

to

the

behavior

of

serving

the

parents,

but

also

implying

to

piety

and

respect

in

ones

heart.

Xiao

has

been

endowed

with

profound

culture

and

moral

meaning,

deeply

rooting

in

Chinese

people’s

mind.

Thus,

it

is

quite

accurate

to

annotate

xiao

as

“filial

piety”

to

review

the

specific

cultural

connotation.Version2

dealt

with

the

word

in

a

so

simple

way

that

loses

part

of

original

meaning.

Plain

words

would

not

catch

readers’

eyes

to

raise

their

attention.

The

Western

readers

could

not

understand

the

vital

importance

of

this

cultural

image

to

the

whole

passage.3.3

Translation

of

NumbersIn

The

Analects,

one

of

the

main

features

is

the

high

frequency

of

using

the

numeral

words.

The

total

quantity

of

numeral

words

appeared

in

The

Analects

is

more

than

220,

which

includes

“

一,

二,

三,

四,

五,

六,

七,

八,

九,

十,

百,

千,

萬,

數(shù),

再,

兩,

屢”,

and

“三”is

the

most

widely

used

on

among

the

seventeen

words,

appearing

nearly

70

times.

The

meaning

and

function

of

these

numeral

words

are

not

the

same

throughout

the

whole

passage.Eg7:

三人行，

必有我?guī)熝伞?/p>

Version

1:

When

I

walk

along

with

two

others,

they

serve

me

as

my

teachers.Version

2:

When

three

men

meet

together,

on

of

them

who

is

anxious

to

learn

can

always

learn

something

of

the

other

two.The

flexibility

of

classical

Chinese

could

be

found

here

in

the

numbers.

In

this

case

the

number

‘三’

does

not

mean

the

exact

number

‘three’

semantically.

It

means

‘a(chǎn)

couple

of

’or

‘some’.

Therefore

both

first

two

versions

failed

to

render

it

correctly.

The

faithful

translation

of

three

is

a

formal

equivalence

instead

of

functional

equivalence.

In

ancient

Chinese

classics,

the

meaning

of

three

is

various;

in

most

occasions

it

is

not

used

as

an

accurate

number.

While

in

western

culture,

such

kind

of

usage

is

rarely

seen,

so

when

dealing

with

these

words,

the

translator

should

have

a

good

understanding

of

the

original

passage

and

the

customs

of

language

using.

Thus,

Version

1

and

Version

2

both

employ

the

semantic

translation

about

the

translation

of

‘三’,

but

they

both

lose

the

true

meaning

of

‘三’.

The

communicative

translation

should

be

applied

in

this

sentence

instead

of

semantic

translation.

I

suggest

the

right

translated

version

should

be

like

this:

When

three

men

or

more

meet

together,

on

of

them

who

are

anxious

to

learn

can

always

learn

something

of

the

others.Eg8:

四海之內(nèi)，皆兄弟也.Version1:

…then

all

within

the

four

seas

will

be

his

brothers.Version2:

in

that

way

he

will

find

all

men

within

the

corners

of

the

Earth

are

his

brothers.‘四?！?/p>

is

put

faithfully

into

‘four

seas’

in

version1,

which

is

semantically

correct,

but

would

cause

difficulties

in

understanding.

In

the

ancient

times,

Chinese

believed

the

four

seas

nearly

covered

the

world

and

thus

it

stood

for

the

world

in

Chinese.

Semantic

translation

is

used

Version

1,

which

keeps

ancient

Chinese

limited

knowledge,

but

may

cause

misinterpretation

among

the

western

readers

while

Version2

adopts

communicative

translation,

making

it

understood

for

the

western

readers.3.4

Translation

of

IdiomsThe

Analects

is

also

an

abundant

fountain

to

the

development

of

Chinese

idioms.

With

condensed

structure

and

profound

signification,

it

conveys

a

large

sum

of

cultural

information.

Moreover,

for

this

reason,

the

translation

of

idiom

is

worth

researching

for

the

sake

of

culture

transmitting.Eg9:

有教無類。Version1:

In

teaching

there

should

be

no

distinction

of

classes.Version2:

Among

really

educated

men,

there

is

no

caste

or

race-distinction.‘Traditional

Chinese

mode

of

thinking

attaches

more

importance

to

intuitive

understanding.

More

often

than

not,

the

Chinese

readers

rely

on

his

intuitive

grasp

of

the

message

rather

than

strict

formal

analysis

to

understand

them.

He

relies

on

his

intuitive

grasp

of

the

message

rather

than

strict

formal

analysis

to

understand

the

grammatical

relations.

Intuitive

comprehension

often

leads

to

excessive

vagueness

of

the

language.’(Lin

Miqing,

1992:

326).

Classical

Chinese

tends

to

be

concise.

And

it

is

the

tradition

to

express

emotions

or

make

comments

in

a

mild

and

tactful

way.

In

this

verse

Confucius

intended

to

say

the

poor

and

the

rich,

the

noble

and

the

humble,

etc.

should

have

right

to

be

educated.

Version2

takes

the

“educated

men”

as

subject,

which

just

carries

part

of

the

intended

meaning.

And

the

use

of

word

“race”

is

improper,

in

Confucius’

living

period,

there

was

no

concept

of

race,

and

the

only

ethnic

group

was

Han.

Only

to

western

people,

they

paid

much

attention

to

the

discrimination

of

various

races.

Thus

this

idiom

should

be

rendered

more

semantically

than

communicatively,

and

version1

is

a

better

one.4.

ConclusionThe

above

is

an

attempt

to

probe

into

some

translation

strategies

for

cultural

translation

in

The

Analects.

With

the

new

tendency

of

culture-oriented

in

translation

field,

a

systematic

theory

for

culture

transmission

is

essential.

The

main

translation

methods

are

as

follows:

semantic

translation

and

communicative

translation

and

the

author

then

analyze

some

typical

examples

arising

from

The

Analects.

However,

there

is

not

a

fixed

translating

rule

or

regulation

for

which

method

to

use

in

cultural

translation

since

it

turns

out

that

the

combination

of

two

translation

methods

will

achieve

more

ideal

effect

sometimes.

Therefore,

a

translator

should

be

flexible

when

doing

cultural

translation.

Chinese

classical

literature

has

concise

structure

and

condensed

implication,

and

reflects

the

wisdom

and

traditional

ideas

of

ancient

Chinese

people.

When

dealing

with

such

kind

of

translation,

the

translators

try

to

keep

literal

meaning

of

original

version,

and

in

process

of

flavor,

style,

and

cultural

spirits.

Hence,

when

doing

cultural

translation,

they

should

firstly

make

clear

the

meaning

of

the

original

text,

meanwhile,

the

comprehension

of

two

culture

background

should

be

taken

into

consideration

as

well.【References】[1]

Newmark,

Peter.Approaches

to

Translation

[M].

Shanghai:

Shanghai

Foreign

Language

Education

Press,

2001.[2]

Nida,

Eugene.A

Language

and

Culture

Context

in

Translating

[M].

Shanghai:

Shanghai

Foreign

Language

Education

Press,

2007.[3]孔子著.Arthur

Waley譯.The

Analects

論語[M].北京:外語教學(xué)與研究出版社,1998.[4]盧紅梅.華夏文化與漢英翻譯[M].武漢:武漢大學(xué)出版,2006.[5]王福林.論語詳注及英譯[M].上海:世界圖書出版公司,1997.Teacher

Talk

discourse

analysisAbstract：Teacher

Talk

(TT

for

short)

refers

to

the

speeches

that

the

teacher

uses

to

speak

to

students

when

the

teacher

undertakes

the

task

in

the

foreign

language

teaching.

TT

can

be

primarily

divided

into

two

types:

content

language

(CL

for

short)

and

medium

language

(ML

for

short).

CL

refers

to

the

language

of

teaching

tasks

as

prescribed

in

textbooks.

ML

consists

of

explanatory

medium

language

(EML)

and

coordinative

medium

language

(CML)

EML

refers

to

the

language

the

teacher

uses

to

perform

such

teaching

tasks

as

paragraphing

words

or

sentences

or

illustrating

grammar

rules.

CML

refers

to

speeches

used

by

the

teacher

for

greeting,

comments,

task

switching,

discipline

regulation,

etc.

What

merits

my

attention

in

this

paper

is

ML.TT

as

the

essential

medium

in

language

teaching

is

firstly

studied

in

the

field

of

Teaching

Methodology.

Different

teaching

approaches

can

bring

about

different

styles

of

TT;

and

different

TT

applies

different

teaching

approaches

to

teaching

activities.

However,

limiting

the

analysis

of

TT

in

the

field

of

Teaching

Methodology

may

narrow

the

research

space

of

TT

and

can

be

fairly

disadvantageous

in

language

teaching.

This

paper

adopts

an

opening

view

–

the

perspective

of

discourse

analysis

to

analyze

linguistic

forms

and

their

functions

as

well

as

effects

on

learners’

learning,

and

it

firstly

sums

up

several

communicative

features

of

TT.

Then

introduces

the

researches

closely

related

to

the

study

of

TT,

and

enquires

the

TT

strategies

basing

on

the

analysis

of

the

middle

schools’

English

teaching.

Finally,

tries

to

offer

further

refection

on

TT.中文題目：中學(xué)英語教學(xué)教師口語策略探討The

key

words:

Teacher

Talk;

discourse

analysis;

context;

classroom

interaction;

communicative

features.

1.

IntroductionThe

first

chapter

serves

as

an

introduction

with

a

brief

overview

of

the

previous

study

of

Teacher

Talk.

It

has

put

forward

the

new

scope

of

this

paper

that

it

will

be

quite

contributive

to

investigate

Teacher

Talk

from

the

perspective

of

the

discourse

analysis

rather

than

limiting

the

research

of

Teacher

Talk

in

the

only

field

of

Foreign

Language

Teaching

Methodologies.

1.1.

Present

Research

on

Teacher

TalkWith

the

development

of

the

second

language

acquisition,

scholars

begin

to

study

language

teaching

classroom

in

psychological

and

sociological

perspectives

in

order

to

improve

students’

acquisition

of

a

second

language.

Mantero

(2002)

studies

discourse

in

second

language

classroom

in

a

psychological

perspective.

His

study

brings

us

“closer

to

understanding

the

role

of

cognition,

discourse,

and

literature

in

a

foreign

language

classroom”.

Those

who

studies

in

the

sociological

perspective

are

interested

in

the

classroom

interaction.

Christie

(2002)

has

said

“there

has

been

a

growing

interest

in

the

study

of

interaction

patterns

found

in

foreign

language

classrooms

during

the

last

20

years.

This

is

a

result

of

the

realization

that

successful

language

teaching

probably

depends

more

on

the

type

of

interaction

that

takes

place

in

the

classroom

than

on

the

actual

teaching

method

used.”

Therefore,

the

discourse

between

the

teacher

and

students

becomes

the

subject.

The

structure

and

the

nature

of

classroom

discourse

are

studied

to

show

how

the

teacher

and

the

students

together

create

chances

to

learn

instead

of

only

how

the

teacher

teaches.

Meanwhile,

there

are

also

micro

studies

of

the

discourse

in

classrooms.

Barnes

(1969,

quoted

in

Ellis,

1994)

has

studied

one

aspect

of

the

discourse

–

initiating.

Mchoul

(1978,

quoted

in

Ellis,

1994)

has

shown

that

classroom

discourse

is

often

organized

so

that

there

is

a

strict

allocation

of

turns

and

who

speaks

to

whom

at

what

time

is

firmly

controlled.

As

a

result,

there

is

less

turn-by-turn

negotiation

and

competition,

and

individual

student

initiatives

are

discouraged.In

China,

although

our

society

has

a

considerable

demand

of

foreign

language

teaching,

and

it

never

functions

well

in

terms

of

explorations

of

Teacher

Talk.

Therefore,

research

of

Teacher

Talk

in

China

seem

quite

inadequate

and

may

not

meet

the

actual

demands

of

foreign

language

teaching.

A

case

in

point

is

the

investigation

made

by

Yang

Xueyan

in

2003.

She

examined

the

Index

to

Papers

on

Foreign

Language

Research

edited

by

Highber

Education

Institute

and

collected

the

statistics

about

the

research

papers

published

by

foreign

language

teachers

in

China

in

1999.

Table:

Statistics

of

Papers

on

Foreign

Language

Teaching

in

1999

Number

Ratio

Foreign

language

teaching

(extensively)

63

24.7%

Reform

in

education

41

16%

Language

learning

and

acquisition

41

16%

Teaching

methodology

28

11%

Language

skills

and

teaching

25

9.8%

Cultural

factors

19

7.5%

Multimedia

and

electric-form

teaching

19

7.5%

Teaching

research

9

3.5%

Foreign

language

classrooms

performance

5

2%

Foreign

language

teachers

5

2%

From

the

above

table

we

may

realize

that

Chinese

foreign

language

teachers

do

concern

most

about

the

research

of

the

second

language

acquisition,

teaching

methodologies

and

cross-cultural

communication,

but

care

the

least

about

language

classroom

and

language

teachers.

Furthermore,

the

research

about

teachers

in

foreign

language

teaching

is

centralized

on

teacher’s

qualities,

teacher’s

roles

and

relationship

between

teachers

and

students

(Yang

Xueyan,

2003).Either

in

domestic

or

foreign

countries,

linguistics

and

language

teachers

have

attached

more

importance

to

teaching

methodologies

and

usually

resort

to

methodological

approach

to

Teacher

Talk

(Liu

Runqing,

1999);

and

the

discoursed

perspective

of

interactive

Teacher

Talk

in

this

paper

is

obviously

unusual

and

needs

to

be

encouraged.

So

from

overview

of

the

present

study

on

Teacher

Talk,

it

necessitates

the

trends

that

Teacher

Talk

should

be

investigated

in

various

respects

(Liu

Runqing,

1999).

1.2．Definition

and

Classification

of

Teacher

TalkAccording

to

the

linguists

Sinclair

＆

Brazil

who

published

Teacher

Talk

in

1982,

teacher

talk

(TT

for

short)

refers

to

the

speeches

that

the

teacher

uses

to

speak

to

students

when

the

teacher

undertakes

teaching

tasks

in

the

foreign

language

teaching

(Sinclair

＆

Brazil,1982).

TT

can

be

primarily

divided

into

two

types:

content

language

(CL

for

short)

and

medium

language

(ML

for

short)

(Sinclair

＆

Brazil,1982).

CL

refers

to

the

language

of

teaching

tasks

as

prescribed

in

textbooks.

Teachers

read

them

aloud

in

the

order

of

sentence

or

paragraph.

ML

consists

of

explanatory

medium

language

(EML)

and

coordinative

medium

language

(CML).

EML

means

the

language

that

teachers

use

to

paraphrase

words

or

sentences

of

texts,

to

illustrate

grammar,

and

to

provide

further

information

relating

to

texts;

CML

refers

to

speeches

used

by

the

teacher

for

greeting,

revision,

question

delivery,

comments,

task

switching,

discipline

regulation,

homework,

etc.

What

merits

my

attention

in

this

paper

is

ML1.3.

Linguistic

Properties

of

Teacher

Talk

Calaudron

(1988)

investigates

and

studies

TT

from

all

linguistic

aspects

and

he

draws

the

following

conclusions:(1)

Pronunciations:

Sonorous,

articulate,

a

bit

exaggerated;

underlying

the

vowels

and

consonant

clusters,

without

an

emphasis

so

much

on

the

RP

(Received

Pronunciation)

as

the

so

called

standard

pronunciation

typical

of

the

written

English;(2)

Vocabulary:

As

few

as

possible

modifiers

to

the

vocabulary,

abbreviations

or

colloquial

expression,

but

many

basic

words

of

neutral

color

are

used;(3)

Syntax:

Short

sentences

are

used

to

the

less

advanced

students

as

many

as

possible

instead

of

the

complex

ones

and

a

great

amount

of

structures

rather

than

the

irregular,

not

so

much

in

the

past

tense

as

in

the

present

tense;(4)

Discourse:

The

first

person

is

mostly

used,

and

repetition

resorted

for

explaining

things

to

the

less

advanced

students;(5)

Other

respects

take

60%

of

a

period

of

class,

and

they

are

standardized,

and

demonstrative.TT

seems

to

be

like

"mother

tongue",

which,

in

the

second

language

classrooms,

is

usually

adjusted

(in

pronunciation,

vocabulary,

syntax

and

discourse)

to

different

needs

of

students;

and

still

needs

to

be

illustrated

with

accuracy,

norms

and

demonstration.

1.4.

Function

and

Values

of

Teacher

TalkFor

about

twenty

years,

linguists

have

paid

more

and

more

attention

to

the

fact

that

in

classrooms

students’

successful

outcome

is

largely

related

to

the

speeches

the

teacher

uses

and

interaction

between

the

teachers

and

students.

Just

as

Duly

states:

“Teaching

a

second

language

means

creating

for

students

a

part

or

all

their

new

language

environment.

The

entire

responsibility

for

creating

the

language

environment

falls

on

the

teacher

who

is

teaching

a

language

that

is

not

used

in

the

community”

(1989).

It

is

obvious

that

teacher

talk

plays

a

very

important

part

as

far

as

students’

acquisition

of

the

second

language

is

concerned.

Seven

Walsh

has

also

pointed

out

that

EFT

classroom

teaching

is

very

different

from

other

classroom

teaching,

and

in

EFT

classrooms,

language

is

not

only

the

aim

of

learning

but

also

the

teaching

medium.

In

other

words,

both

teachers

and

students

are

using

the

language

while

they

are

teaching

and

learning

the

language.

TT

can

be

the

largest

and

most

liable

source

of

students’

second

language

acquisition.

Consequently,

the

presentation

of

TT

has

both

positive

and

passive

effects

on

students’

outcome

(Wang

Yinquan,

1999).

TT

is

functional

and

of

great

value

as

far

as

all

the

respects

of

classroom

teaching

is

concerned.

Below

are

demonstrations

to

show

two

of

TT’s

functions:

to

create

harmonious

atmosphere

and

to

encourage

students.Firstly,

a

teacher

can

improve

his

TT

to

create

harmonious

atmosphere

in

foreign

language

teaching.Secondly,

a

good

teacher

needs

to

make

sure

that

all

students

get

the

feeling

of

being

encouraged

from

his

TT

“Encouraging”

being

a

language

function;

it

is

the

best

way

for

teacher

to

use

the

linguistic

tools

to

verbally

encourage

students,

not

by

pointing

out

that

students’

weaknesses

do

not

matter,

but

by

highlighting

their

strengths.Besides

its

worth

and

function

in

teaching

and

learning,

TT

serves

as

the

major

source

of

students’

foreign

language

input,

and

it

is

of

great

significance

for

TT

to

be

paid

a

close

and

further

attention

to.

Another

reason

may

be

that

ever

since

Hymes

(1972)

raised

the

issue

of

communicative

competence

(CC)

in

the

1970s,

it

has

been

widely

advocated

as

the

target

of

TESOL

and

Second

Language

Acquisition

(SLA).

Much

research

on

making

students

speak

appropriately

has

been

done,

with

theories

such

as

learner-centered

learning,

learners#39;

awareness

of

CC,

learners#39;

autonomy

in

class

being

established

2.

Rationales

Relevant

to

Teacher

TalkThe

first

chapter

introduces

the

rationales

which