生態(tài)學(xué)中的環(huán)境因子

生態(tài)學(xué)中的環(huán)境因子第一頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Biotic:organisms.Organismscompetewith,parasitize,eatorareeatenbyandchangetheenvironmentforotherorganisms.第二頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Ecologyexploresawiderangeofquestionsaboutwhatfactorscontrolthedistribution,abundanceandbehavioroforganisms.Forexample,RedKangaroosoccurprimarilyintheAustralianinteriorinsemiaridregions.第三頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三DistributionofKangaroossuggestsanabioticfactor(precipitation)influencesit,butperhapspopulationsalsoinfluencedindirectlybybioticfactorssuchascompetitors,predators,foodavailabilityandparasites.Ecologistshavetoconsidermultiplefactorstoexplainpatternsofabundanceanddistribution.第四頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第五頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三EcologyhasmanysubfieldsofstudyrangingfromecologyofindividualorganismstodynamicsoflandscapesOrganismalEcologyPopulationEcologyCommunityEcologyEcosystemEcologyLandscapeEcologyWewillexplorethesesequentially第六頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第七頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三DistributionofspeciesBiogeography:studyofthebroadpatternsofdistributionoforganismsacrosstheglobe.Patternsstronglyinfluencedbyhistoricalfactorssuchascontinentaldrift(seechapter26)andbarriersincludingmountainrangesandseas.第八頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第九頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Forexample,Australiapopulatedbymarsupialmammals(e.g.kangaroos,wombats,koalas)becauseplacentalmammalsdidnotcolonizeitbeforeitseparatedfromotherlandmasses.TapirsfoundonlyinsoutheastAsiaandSouthAmerica.Ancestralpopulationsseparatedwhenlandmassesdiverged.第十頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三RoleofdispersalindistributionAbilitytocrossbarriersaffectsdistribution.Thus,speciesofbirdsoftenmorewidelydistributedthanmammals.第十一頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三However,inabilitytoreachanareanotonlyfactorthatlimitsdistribution.Abilitytosurviveinnewareaiscritical.Tosurviveandthrivespeciesmustbeabletocopewithbothbioticandabioticfactors.第十二頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三BioticfactorsThepresenceofcompetitorsorpredatorsmaylimitanorganismsabilitytoestablishitself.Forexample,algaeareeatenbyseaurchinsandlimpets,whichlimitstheabilityofseaweedstoestablishthemselvesonrocks第十三頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第十四頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三BioticfactorsConversely,absenceofpredatorsandcompetitorshasallowedmanyorganismsintroducedintonewareastoincreasesomuchtheybecomepests.E.g.Japanesebeetles(fromAsia),zebramusselsandpurpleloosestrifefromEurope)(Melaleuca(EucalyptustreesfromAustralia)andmanyotherinvasivespecieshavespreadwidelyintheU.S.第十五頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三AbioticfactorsThemajorfactoraffectingdistributionofterrestrialorganismsisclimate,whichincorporatestemperature,sunlight,windandprecipitation.第十六頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三AbioticfactorsClimateisdeterminedbyglobalfactorssuchasinputsofsolarenergyandthemovementoftheearththroughspace.Studydiscussionofclimatepatternspages1088and1089第十七頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第十八頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第十九頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三ClimateLocalfactorssuchasthepresenceofmountainsandlargebodiesofwateralsoaffectclimate.Mountainsforceupmoistairmovingacrossthem.Astheaircoolsthewatercondensesandfallsasrain.Theresultisthatonesideofthemountainrangeiswetandtheothersideisdrier(andperhapsadesert[e.g.MojaveandGobiDeserts.])第二十頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第二十一頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三ClimateLargebodiesofwatermoderateclimate.Landheatsfasterthanwaterandwarmairrises.Coolerairoverwatermovesinandreplacesthewarmair.Thewarmairthatwasoverlandcoolsathighaltitudeandsinksoverwater.Resultsissteadyflowofcoolairoverland.第二十二頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三第二十三頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三TerrestrialBiomesBiomesaremajortypesofecosystemsthatcoverlargeareasoftheearthandareclassifiedbytheirdominantvegetationtypes.(anecosystemisthecommunityoforganismsinanareaandtheirphysicalenvironment)第二十四頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Eachbiomealsoispopulatedbyadiversearrayofanimals,fungiandmicroorganismsadaptedtothatenvironment.第二十五頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三MajorterrestrialbiomesincludeTropicalforestDesertTemperateGrasslandSavannaTemperatebroadleafforestConiferousforest(Taiga)Tundra(seedescriptionspages1100-1104)第二十六頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Savannah第二十七頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三TerrestrialbiomesTerrestrialbiomesoftenverticallystratified.Layersdefinedbydifferentsizeplants(e.g.inforeststhereisanuppercanopyoftalltrees,lowtreelayer,shrublayer,groundlayerofherbaceousplants,litterlayerandrootzone).第二十八頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Stratificationprovidesmultipledifferenthabitatsforanimalswhichoccupyspecializedfeedingniches.第二十九頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三ConvergentevolutionActualspeciesinabiomedifferfromoneareatoanotherbuttheypossesssimilaradaptations.Thisisconvergentevolution(developmentofsameevolutionarysolutionstoecologicalproblems)第三十頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三ConvergentevolutionForexamplevegetationinalldesertsworldwidecharacterizedbyextensiverootsystems,long-termwaterstoragecapability,thickwaxycoveringstoreducewaterloss,andextremelysmall(ifany)leaves第三十一頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Biomesoftenmaintainedbydisturbance.Wildfiresareanessentialfactorinmaintainingmanybiomes(e.g.grasslands,savannahs,someconiferousforests).Firefavorstreessuchaslongleafpinewhosebarkresistsfireandgrasses,whichrecoverquicklyafterburning.第三十二頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三AquaticbiomesAquaticbiomeslessinfluencedbyclimatethanterrestrialbiomesWhy?第三十三頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三AquaticbiomesWaterismorethermallystable.Ittakesalotofheattochangethetemperatureofabodyofwater.第三十四頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三MajoraquaticbiomesLakesRiversEstuariesIntertidalzoneMarinepelagiczoneCoralreefsMarinebenthiczone(benthiczoneissea/lakefloor)Seepages1094-1097.第三十五頁，共四十頁，編輯于2023年，星期三Aquaticbiomesoftenstratifiedbylightandtemperat