胡壯麟語言學(xué)總復(fù)習(xí)課件

19七月2023胡壯麟語言學(xué)總復(fù)習(xí)Chapter1LanguageandLinguistics1.1LanguageandHuman1.2Designfeaturesoflanguage1.3FunctionsofLanguage1.4Linguisticsanditsbranches1.5BasicConceptsinlinguistics1.1DefinitionoflanguageIntheTextbookLanguageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcures,motivation,andsocial-culturalrolesLanguage:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.2DesignfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeatures:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Arbitrariness/Productivity/Duality/Displacement/CulturaltransmissionArbitrarinessArbitrarinessreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichrevealsthatthereisnodirectnaturallinkbetweenthelinguisticformanditsmeaning.However,languageisnotentirelyarbitrary.Therearewordswhicharecreatedintheimitationofsounds.Butthenon-arbitrarywordsarequitelimitedinnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?

Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements

“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.ProductivityProductivityreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichenableslanguagetogeneratenewutterancesbyitsusers.Thepropertyoflanguageenablesustoexpressourunlimitedandnewideas.Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.DualityDualityisthenatureoflanguagewhichshowsthatlanguageisasystemandconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless,discrete,individualsounds.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbecombinedaccordingtorulesintounitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords,which,atthehigherlevel,

canbearrangedintosentences.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.DisplacementDisplacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeakerAnimalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation.CulturaltransmissionCulturaltransmissionisthepropertyoflanguagewhichrequiresushumantolearnalanguage.Humanbeingswerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage.Thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmittedorpasseddownbyinstinct.Theyhavetobetaughtandlearned,

butanimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytrans-mitted.DiscretenessDiscretenessisthepropertyoflanguagewhichenablesthespeakersofalanguagetoidentifythesoundelementsinitswords.Eachsoundisdiscreteanddistinctandthuscanbecombinedtogethertomakedifferentforms.Itisthestructuralfeatureoflanguagethatwordsaremadeupofelementalsounds1.3FunctionsoflanguageMalinowski:pragmaticfunction;magicalfunction;phaticfunctionJakobson:referential,poetic,emotive,conative,phatic,metaligualfunctionHalliday:metafunctions:ideationalfunction;interpersonalfunction;textualfunction1.4LinguisticsanditsbranchesBasicbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics:speechsoundsPhonology:rulesinspeechsoundsMorphology:wordsandtheirformationSyntax:rulesofsentencesSemantics:meaningGrammarPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsOtherbranchesoflinguisticsPragmaticsAnthropologicallinguisticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsNeurolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguistics1.5SomeconceptsinLinguisticsDescriptivevsprescriptiveSynchronicvsdiachronicSpeechandwritingLangueandparoleCompetenceandperformance1)PrescriptiveandDescriptivePrescriptivismprescribesrulesofwhatiscorrect.ItcreatesrulesofgrammarDescriptivismdescribethewaypeopleactuallyspeakandwritetheirlanguage,nottoprescribehowtheyoughttospeakorwrite.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Traditionalgram-marisprescriptive;itisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlan-guage.Itsetsgrammaticalrulesandimposestherulesonlanguageusers.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive;Itcollectsauthentic,andmainlyspokenlanguagedataandthenitstudiesanddescribesthedatainanobjectiveandscientificway.2)SynchronicandDiachronicThediachronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageThesynchronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageatasinglepointoftime.Synchronicdescriptionhaspriorityoverdiachronicdescription.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy;thede-scriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Asynchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime,whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.3)LangueandParoleLangueParoleTheabstractsystemAcollectivebodyofknowledgeAcquiredbyallmembersofacommunityofspeakersTheparticularactualitiesofindividualutterancesThecontingentexecutivesideofthingsTherelativesuperficialbehavioralreflexesofknowledgeTheuseoflanguageinutteranceWhatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?Thedistinctionbetweenlangue,andparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.4)CompetenceandperformanceChomskyCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemofabstractformalrelationsPerformancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten.Theinfinitevariedindividualactsofverbalbehaviorwiththeirirregularities,inconsistenciesanderrors.Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?

AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,

performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc..Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard.Saussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?AlthoughSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamaterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SpeechandwritingSpeechandwritingaretwosystemsoflanguage.Speechhaspriorityoverwriting.Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,not

thewritten?First,thespokenformispriortothewrittenformandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformoflan-guage.Second,thespokenformplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedanditservesawiderrangeofpurposesFinally,thespokenformisthemediumthroughwhichweacquireourmothertongue.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting?1)

Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.2)

Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.3)

Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlateratschool.ChapterTwo:Speechsounds:phoneticsandphonology2.1Phonetics2.2Phonology2.1PhoneticsPhonetics:thescientificstudyofspeechsounds,concerningwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.Speechisachainwiththreestages:productionofthemessage,thetransmissionofthemessageandthereceptionofthemessageSophoneticsareinthreebranches:articulatoryphonetics(identificationandclassificationofindividualsounds),acousticphonetics(analysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves,thephysicalfeaturesofspeechsounds)andauditoryphonetics(perceptionofspeech)Speechsoundsandnon-speechsoundsWecanmakeavarietyofsounds.Butwechoosesomeoftheminourspeech.Wemakesoundsbymeansoftheairoutoforintoourbody.Sowehave:Pulmonicandnon-pulmonicspeechsoundsinourspeech.PulmonicegressiveairstreamvsnonpulmonicingressiveairstreamArticulationofsoundsSpeechorgans:lungs,trachea,larynx,pharyngeal,oralcavities,andnasalcavities.Glottis:vocalfoldsVoicing:vibrationofthevocalfolds:voicedandvoiceless:someconsonantsandallvowelsDescriptionofspeechsoundsWeusePhoneticAlphabetstodescribespeechsoundsInternationalPhoneticalphabet(IPA):auniquewrittenrepresentation(alistofsymbols)ofeverysoundineverylanguageDiacritics:anymarkinsounddescriptionadditionaltolettersorotherbasicelements.[¨],[?]Narrowdescription:detailedBroaddescription:generalConsonantsConsonantsareproducedbytemporarilyobstructingorrestrictingtheairstreamasitpassesthroughthemouth.Consonantsmaybedividedintotwogroupsintermsof2dimensions:theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation.VowelsVowelsarecharacterizedbytheabsenceofobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth.TheyareproducedwithoutanyobstructionorrestrictionoftheairstreamThreedimensionsfortheconfigurationofthevowels:openness,backnessandroundingEachofthedimensionsiscontinuous,thedifferencebetweenanytwovowelsintermsoftheopenness,backnessandroundingisalwaysamatterofmoreorlessVowelscanbedistinguishedasoralvowelsandnasalvowels

Cardinalvowels8primarycardinalvowelsanother8cardinalvowels,thesecondarycardinalvowels:thefrontroundedandthebackunroundedMonophthong:avowelwhosequalityremainsstableduringitsproductionisknownasmonophthong.Diphthong:Avowelwhosequalitychangedduringitsproduction,infactacombinationoftwomonophthongsisknownasdiphthong.GivethecorrecttechnicaltermsforthefollowingexpressionsBothlipsbilabialOpeningbetweenvocalcordsvoicelessTeethdentalHardroofofmouthpalatalRidgebehindupperteechalveolarLowerliptoupperteethlabiodentalBackoftonguetosoftrearroofofmouthvelar

Writethecorrespondingsoundsegmentsaccordingtothedescriptions.a)Voicelessbilabialstop:__[p]______b)Voicedalveolarnasal:___[n]_______c)Voicedvelarstop:______[?]_______d)Centrallaxunroundedvowel:_[?]______e)Highbacktenseroundedvowel:_[u:]____Foreachgroupofsoundslistedbelow,statethephoneticfeatureorfeatureswhichtheyallshare.a.[f][v][s][?]fricative

b.[i:][i][e][?][e:]front

c.[d][l][s][z][t]alveolard.[b][d][g]plosive,voicede.[j][w]voiced

Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels?1)

Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,centralandbackintermsofthepositionofthetongueinthemouth.2)

Accordingtohowwideourmouthisopened,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.3)

Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.4)

TheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowelsaccordingtothelengthofthesound.2.2Phonology:SoundpatternsPhonologyfocusesonthelinguistic(phonological)rulesthatareusedtospecifythemannerinwhichspeechsoundsareorganizedandcombinedintomeaningfulunits,whicharethencombinedtoformsyllables,wordsandsentences.Soundsarechosentobecombinedindifferentlanguages:numberandtypeWhatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics?Theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Assimilation:aruleforneighbouringsoundsSoundsinneighbourhoodmayinfluenceeachother.[l]and[r]becomesvoicelesswhentheyfollow[s],[p],[t]and[k],asinslay,pray,tray,andclay.Vowelsbecomeabitlongerwhentheyarebeforevoicedconsonants,asinlipandlid,bitandbid.Vowelsbeforeanasalconsonantbecomenasalized,e.g.fan,beam.Phonologicalrulesgeneralform:A→B/C___DNasalizationrule:vowel→nasal/__nasalAspirationrule:voicelessstop→aspirated/wordinitiallyandinitiallyinstressedsyllablesSequentialrule:asyllablesequence:(CCC)V(CCCC).Consonantclustersinsyllableinitialpositionmustfollowthefollowingsequence:/s/:/p/,/t/,/k/:/w/,/r/,/l/,/j/Assimilationrules:twophonemesbecomeidenticalorsimilarwhenadjacenttoeachother,forinstance,nasalization,devoicing,velarization,aspiration,dentalizationDeletionandepenthesis:thedroppingofcertainsoundortheaddingofcertainsound.RuleorderingRulesmustbeappliedaccordingtocertainsequence.Forinstance,thepluralformofdesk,bedandbusfollowsthreerulesinsurfaceoutput:a.The/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds.Devoicingruleb.The/z/appearsaftervoicedsoundsBasicformc.The/?z/appearsaftersibilantsEpenthesisDevoicing:z→s/[-voice,C]____Epenthesis:Φ→?/sibilant___z

RuleorderingTheapplicationoftherulesfollowsthesequence:epenthesisdevoicing/desk+z//bed+z//bΛs+z/N/AN/A?sN/AN/AdesksbedzbΛs?zIfweapplythedevoicingrulefirst,thentheepenthesisrule/desk+z//bed+z//bΛs+z/sN/AsN/AN/A?desksbedzbΛs?sPhonemeandallophoneAnabstractunitofspeechsoundisaphoneme.Itisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits.AnditcandistinguishmeaningE.g.seedanddeedAphonemehasdifferentrealizationsinspeech.Thedifferentrealizationsmaketheallophonesofthesamephoneme.Forinstance,/l/aredifferentinthewordslapandpull.ButthedifferencedoesnotmakedifferentmeaningMinimalpairandminimalsetAphonemecanbecheckedbycomparingtwowordswhicharesimilarinallmembersexceptoneinthesameposition.Forinstance,manandmen,bitandpit,seedanddeedWecallthesepairsofwordsasminimalpairs.Andthoseingroup,likebit,pit,sit,lit,fit,wit,etc.asminimalsetDistinctivefeaturesAphonemeisdifferentfromanotherforaparticulardifferentfeature,wecallthisfeature,ormanyotherfeaturesfordistinctionofphonemesasdistinctivefeatures.VoicedandVoiceless,RoundedandUnrounded3distinctivefeaturesrelatingtotonguebodyfeatures:[high],[low],and[back]InterruptedandstridentTenseandlaxComplementarydistributionWhentwoormoresoundsneveroccurinanidenticalphonemiccontextorenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution./h/and/?//p/and/pH/AllallophonesareindistributionInwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot?Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.2.4SuprasegmentalFeaturesThefeaturesofspeechontheunitswhicharelargerthanindividualsounds(segments).Fouraspects:syllable,stress,pitch,intonationandtoneSyllableAsyllablecontainsacenter,whichisloudandhasno/littleobstruction.Beforethiscentertheremaybethegreaterobstructiontoairflow.3partsofasyllable:onset+peak+codaOpensyllable:withoutcodaClosedsyllable:withacodaSonorityscaleofSyllablesAsyllableconsistsofaprominentorsonorouspeak(usuallyavowel),sometimessurroundedbyconsonantsthatdecreaseinsonoritytowardstheedges.Thesonorityscaleisalistofphoneticsegmentsshowingtherelativeresonanceofphoneticsegmentsinrelationtoothersegments.obstruents<nasals<liquids<glides<vowelsSONORITYSCALE5.VOWELS/a,,i,u/4.

GLIDES/j,w/3.LIQUIDS/l,r/2.NASALS/m,n,N/1.FRICATIVES,AFFRICATES&STOPSSonorityscaleThiscanhelpusunderstandthepossiblesequenceinsoundcombination.Forexample,*lkapsStressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Itisarelativenotion.Syllableprominence:asyllableismoreprominentthanothersinawordorphrasePrimarystressandsecondarystress.StresspatternsmakerhythmicunitsinspeechorpoemsStressmaybemeaningful(makessyntacticdifference)PitchPitchdependsonthevibrationofthevocalcords:ahighfrequencyofvibrationofasoundmakesithaveahighpitch.Achangeinpitchmayproduceavowelmoreloudly,andlongerthanothervowels.Sostressedsyllableistheresultofpitchheight.Pitchpatterns:steady,rising,falling.FallingpitchismorecommoninlanguagethanrisingpitchIntonationIntonation:Thepitchdifferencesthatextendoverphoneticunitslargerthanthesyllable.Functionsofintonation:groupingofwords;emphasizingwords,differentiatingmeanings.ToneTone:differencesinpitchwhichcancausechangesofwordmeaningTonelanguages(Chinese),stresslanguages(English),andpitchaccentlanguages(Japanese)Illustratewithexampleshowsuprasegmentalfeaturescanaffectmeaning.1)

ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`importandim`port.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompounds,isthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:`blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,butablack`birdisabirdthatisblack.2)

Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,verbsadjectives,adverbs,etcarepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.Takethesentence“Heisdrivingmycar.”

forexample.Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy,whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.3)

Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Chapter3wordandmorphology3.1Words:classificationandfunction3.2Morphology:studyofwordstructure3.3Morphologicalrulesforwordformation3.4Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology3.5Lexicalchange3.6Lexicon3.7ChineseBorrowedwordsfromEnglishorotherlanguages3.1WordsandwordclassificationWhatisaword?Bloomfield:aminimumfreeformAunitoflanguagewhichcanbeidentifiedinspeechwithpauses,inwritingwithspaces.Acombinationofsound:withphonemesSymbolic:withmeaningsPartoflanguage:withfunctionsinmakingasentence.ClassificationofwordsOpenclass=lexicalwords,contentwordsClosedclass=grammaticalwords,functionwordsVariableandinvariablewords:withinflectionalendingsandwithoutinflectionalendings3.2Morphology:studyofwordstructureMorphology:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.MorphologyreliesontheconceptofmorphemesAmorphemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitthatcarriesgrammaticaland/orsemanticmeaning.Thesmallest

meaningfulelementoflanguagethatcannotbereducedtosmallerelements.(Bussmann1996:313)TypesofmorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorpheme:Boundmorpheme:Morphemesthatcannotoccur“unattached”,butalwaysaspartsofwords.Freemorpheme:Morphemesthatcanconstitutewordsbythemselves.Aboundmorphemeisalsocalledaffix.Allaffixesareboundmorphemes.Rootscanbefreeornot.Inflectionalmorphemeandderivativemorpheme:grammaticalfunctionorlexicalfunction(makingnewwords)Affixesareclassifiedaccordingtotheirplacementonthestem:prefix,suffix,infixRoot:thebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity(freeorboundmorpheme).Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.

preestablishment:pre-establish-ment-path:emotion:sympathy,empathyStem:anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeaddedfriend-s(alsoaroot),friendship-s(root+derivationalaffix)DerivationalandinflectionalmorphemesDerivationalmorpheme:Boundmorphemeswhichchangethecategoryorgrammaticalclassofwords.Inflectionalmorphemes:Boundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon.3.3MorphologicalrulesofwordformationMorphologicalrules:wayswordsareformedUn

+ADJECTIVE=

not

–ADJECTIVEacceptable–unacceptablesad–

unsadProductive/lessproductiveDerivation:theformationofnewwordsbyaddingaffixestootherwordsormorphemes.Compounding:Wordscanbeformedbycombiningtwoormorewordstogether.Conversion:zeroaffixizationAbbreviation:clipping,initials,acronymes,blendingBack-formation:oppositetoderivationNeologism:newcoinageBorrowing:loanwords,loanblendsandtranslationloans

a.

Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords,e.g.,armchair,follow-up,thunderbird.Howacompoundiswrittenissimplyamatterofconvention.b.

Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement,e.g.,icy-coldadj.,head-strongadj.,greenhousen.Buttherearemanyexceptions,especiallywiththosecompoundsendingwithaverboranadverborapreposition.Forexample,follow-up,crackdown,kick-offareallnounsinsteadofadverbs,andtoothpick,snowfall,andfaceliftarenounsinsteadofverbs.Featuresofcompounds

c.Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents.E.g.ablacklegisnotalegthatisblack,agreenhouseisnotahousethatisgreen,andneitherisahotdogadog.Tofindoutthemeaningofacompound,onesometimeshastoconsultthedictionaryinsteadofdoingsomeguesswork.

d.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.Thisisimportantbecauseithelpsustodistinguish–ingformsthatareusedasapre-modifierofanounandthosethatareusedasthefirstpartofacompoundword.(runningdog:adogthatisrunning;apersonwhofollowsanotherpersonobedientlyinhiswrongdoings)a.

Initialisms(wordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordsandpronouncedasletters)VOA,WTO,IOC,IMF，VCDb.Acronyms(wordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordsandpronouncedaswords)NATO,SALT=StrategicArmsLimitationTalks,DOB=Dateo