Get格雅Unit6Food新編大學(xué)英語第二版第二冊課文翻譯

Unit-6-Food新編大學(xué)英語第二版第二冊課文翻譯Unit6FoodFoodandCulture[1]Weallhaveideasaboutwhatkindsoffoodsaregoodtoeat.Wealsohaveideasaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarebadtoeat.Asaresult,peoplefromonecultureoftenthinkthefoodsthatpeoplefromanothercultureeataredisgustingornauseating.WhenthefamousboxerMuhammadAlivisitedAfrica,forexample,onememberofhisgroupbecamequitesickwhenhesawsomeonepickupabutterflyandeatit.Manypeoplewouldfinditdisgustingtoeatrats,butthereareforty-twodifferentcultureswhosepeopleregardratsasappropriatefood.[2]SomepeopleinAfricathinkAfricantermitesmakeadeliciousmeal.Manyotherpeoplewouldprobablybesickiftheyhadtoeattermites,butonehundredgramsoftermitescontainmorethantwiceasmanycaloriesandalmosttwiceasmuchproteinasonehundredgramsofcookedhamburger.[3]However,foodlikesanddislikesdonotalwaysseemrelatedtonutrition.Forexample,broccoliisfirstonalistofthemostnutritiouscommonvegetables,butitistwenty-firstonalistofvegetablesthatAmericanslikemosttoeat.Tomatoesaresixteenthonthelistofmostnutritiousvegetables,buttheyarefirstonthelistofvegetablesthatAmericanslikemosttoeat.[4]Butdislikeisnottheonlyreasonwhysomecultureswillnoteatacertainfood.Insomecultures,certainfoodsaretaboo.TabooisawordfromthelanguageoftheFijiIslandsthatisusedtodescribesomethingthatisforbidden.Somefoodsaretabooincertainreligions,buttherearealsootherfoodtaboosthatarenotconnectedtoareligion.Wedonotusuallythinkaboutwhycertainthingsaretabooinourculture.Wemaynotevenknowwhytheyaretaboo.Anthropologiststrytodiscoverthehiddenreasonsfortaboos.Forexample,thesacredcowsofIndiaarewellknown.CowscangowherevertheywanttointhestreetsofIndia,andtheycaneatanythingtheywantfromthesuppliesofthefoodsellersonthestreet.Asaresult,thecowsareaproblem.However,nooneinIndiawillkillthemoreatthem.Itistabootodoso.Thiscustomseemsstrangetootherpeople,butanthropologistsbelievethattherearereasonsforit.First,cowsarevaluablebecausethefarmersneedthemtohelpplowtheirfields.Second,cowmanureisusedasafertilizeronthefields.InIndia,manyfarmerscannotaffordtospendmoneyonfertilizer.Third,thecowmanurecanbedriedandburnedtomakecookingfires.Therefore,farmersthatkilltheircowsformeatsoonfindthattheycannotploworfertilizetheirfieldsormakeacookingfire.[5]AnotherexampleisthatAmericansdonoteatdogs,althoughpeoplefromsomeotherculturesregardthemasgoodfood.IntheUnitedStates,dogsareveryimportanttopeopleaspets.Theyareusuallyregardedaspartofthefamily,almostlikeachildinsomecases.Inaddition,dogshavevalueasprotectionagainstcriminals.Thieveswillnotusuallyenterahousewherethereisadogbecausethedogwillbarkandpossiblyattackastrangerwhoistryingtogetintoahouse.Apparently,thedog'splaceinsocietyasacompanionandasprotectionagainstcriminalsmakesthedogtabooasfood.[6]Thetabooagainsteatingporkoccursinmorethanoneculture.ThereissomeevidencethatsomeancientEgyptiansdidnoteatpork.TheancientIsraelitesalsoregardedporkastaboo.Oneexplanationforthepig-eatingtabooisthatporkthatisnotcookedsufficientlymayspreadadiseasecalledtrichinosis.However,mostpeoplenolongerthinkthatthisisagoodexplanationfortheporktaboo.AnotherexplanationisthattheIsraeliteswerenomads—theywerealwaysmovingfromplacetoplace.Peoplehavetostayinoneplacetoraisepigs.TheIsraelitesdidnotwanttostayinoneplacebecausetheydidnotwanttochangetheirculture.Asaresult,theydidnoteatpigs.[7]Anthropologistsbelievethatmostfoodlikesanddislikesarearesultofthewaysoflifeofdifferentpeople.Somepeopleliveinareaswheretherearebothlargeanimalsandmanyinsects.Itisdifficultforthesepeopletokilllargeanimals,anditrequiresalotofenergy.Itiseasierforthemtouseinsectsforfoodbecauseitisnotdifficulttocatchinsectsanditdoesnotrequirealotofenergy.Nomadicpeoplewhomovearoundwillnotwanttokeeppigsforfood.Peoplewillnoteatpetssuchasdogs.Americanseatalotofbeefbecausethereisplentyoflandforraisingcattleandtheirmeatcanbeshippedcheaplyforlongdistancesbyrailroads.飲食與文化1對于什么樣的食物好吃，我們都有自己的主見。對于什么樣的食物不好吃，我們也有自己的看法。因此，某種文化背景的人常常會覺得另一種文化背景的人吃的食物難以忍受或者令人作嘔。比方，在著名的拳擊手穆罕默德·阿里訪問非洲時(shí)，團(tuán)里的一名成員看到有人抓起一只蝴蝶就吃了下去時(shí)便惡心得想嘔吐。許多人會覺察吃老鼠肉令人惡心，但世界上有42種不同文化的人認(rèn)為鼠肉是適宜的食物。2在非洲有些人認(rèn)為非洲白蟻可以做成美餐。對于許多其他人來說，如果非吃〔白蟻〕不可的話，他們很可能會嘔吐。但是，如果拿100克的白蟻和100克制作好的漢堡包相比，前者所含的熱量是后者的兩倍多，其所含的蛋白質(zhì)也幾乎是后者的兩倍。3不過，對食物的好惡似乎并不一定與營養(yǎng)有關(guān)。例如，花椰菜在營養(yǎng)最豐富的常見蔬菜中排名第一，但它在美國人最喜歡的蔬菜中僅名列第二十一位。西紅柿在營養(yǎng)最豐富的蔬菜中排名十六，但它在美國人最喜歡的蔬菜中卻名列榜首。4但不喜歡并不是某些文化〔中人們〕不吃某種食物的唯一原因。在有些文化中，有些食物是禁忌。“禁忌〞一詞來源于斐濟(jì)群島的語言,用來表示禁止做的事。有些食物在某些宗教中被列為禁忌，但也有一些飲食禁忌與宗教無關(guān)。通常我們不去考慮為什么在我們的文化中有些東西是禁忌。我們也許甚至不知道它們?yōu)槭裁词墙?。人類學(xué)家試圖發(fā)現(xiàn)禁忌背后隱藏的原因。例如，印度“圣牛〞為人們所熟知。?？梢栽谟《鹊拇蠼稚系教幾?，它們可以吃街上食品攤主所供給的食物中任何它們想吃的東西。結(jié)果，牛就成了問題。可是，在印度沒人會去殺?；虺耘Ｈ?。殺牛或吃牛肉是禁忌。這種習(xí)俗在其他人看起來似乎很奇怪，但人類學(xué)家相信這自有其原因。首先，牛是很珍貴的，因?yàn)檗r(nóng)民需要它們幫助犁地。其次，牛糞可作地里的肥料。在印度，許多農(nóng)民買不起肥料。還有，牛糞弄干后可用來燒火做飯。因此，殺牛食肉的農(nóng)民很快發(fā)現(xiàn)他們無法犁地，無法給莊稼施肥，或者無燃料做飯。5再比方，美國人不吃狗肉,盡管其他一些文化背景的人視狗肉為佳肴。在美國，狗作為寵物對人們極為重要。通常它們被視為家庭的一局部，有時(shí)甚至還把狗當(dāng)成自己的孩子。此外，狗的價(jià)值還在于防范罪犯。盜賊一般不進(jìn)入有狗的住宅，因?yàn)楣窌徒?，而且可能會襲擊試圖進(jìn)入屋子的陌生人。顯而易見，狗在社會中作為伙伴及防范罪犯的衛(wèi)士的角色使吃狗肉成為禁忌。6不止一種文化忌食豬肉。有跡象說明一些古埃及人不吃豬肉。古代以色列人也視豬肉為禁忌。對禁食豬肉的一種解釋是，未被煮透的豬肉可能會傳播一種疾病，叫旋毛蟲病。但大多數(shù)人不再認(rèn)為這能很好地解釋禁食豬肉的原因。另一種解釋是以色列人原屬游牧民族——他們總是居無定所。要養(yǎng)豬，人們就得在某地定居下來。從前以色列人不愿在一個(gè)地方定居，因?yàn)樗麄儾幌敫淖冏约旱奈幕Ｕ蛉绱?，他們便不食豬肉。7人類學(xué)家相信，對食物的好惡大多是不同人不同生活方式的結(jié)果。有些人生活在既有大型動物又有許多昆蟲的地區(qū)。他們殺死大型動物有困難，需要花很大的力氣。對他們來說，以昆蟲為食要容易些，因?yàn)椴蹲嚼ハx既不困難又不需花太大的力氣。四處流動、過游牧生活的人不愿意為吃肉而養(yǎng)豬。人們也不吃像狗那樣的寵物。美國人牛肉吃得很多，因?yàn)橛写罅康耐恋乜捎脕眇B(yǎng)牛，而且牛肉可以通過鐵路以低廉的價(jià)格進(jìn)行長途運(yùn)輸。TheMenuJimHeimann[1]Foodhistorytellsusthatinearlyrestaurantstherecitationoftheavailablefooddishesbecameanincreasinglytime-consumingchore;therefore,writtenmenusweredevelopedtohelpguidedinersintheireatingchoices.Thiswrittenmenuwascommonlyhandwrittenonachalkboardorlistedonaboardthatcouldbeeasilyseenbythecustomers.Developmentsinprintingfinallyledtoachangeandthelargerrestaurants'floorplansmadeasinglehandwrittenmenuimpractical,soprintedmenuswereintroduced.[2]Delmonico'srestaurantinNewYorkCityisoftengivencreditforintroducingthefirstprintedmenuintheUnitedStatesin1834.Thatmenu,aswellasothersoftheperiod,wassimpleindesignandofferedspecificinformation.Specialoccasionsledtoacallforuniquedesignsandeventuallyledtomorehighlydecoratedmenus.[3]Forthemostpart,however,menudecorationfollowedtheartmovementsofthetime.Thehighlydecoratedlate19thcenturymenus,whichwereinfluencedbyVictorianart,gavewaytomodernartinthe20thcentury.Developmentswithgraphicsandprintingalloweddistinctivemenucoverart.[4]Bythe1930s,themenuwasseenasapartoftherestaurant'splantocreateamemorablemeal.Itcoulddevelopanappetite,tellajoke,explainafooditem,createamood,tellsomethingofthehistoryoftherestaurant,and,aboveall,sellsomefood.Restauranttradepublicationsencouragedtheuseofthemenuaspartofthebusinessstrategy,andtheNationalRestaurantAssociationpromotedeffectivemenugraphicsinitsannualcompetitionofbestmenusinthenation.Itsguidelinesforjudgingincluded(1)originality,(2)legibility,(3)easeofhandling,and(4)saleseffectiveness.RestaurantManagementmagazineinitsNovember1935issuestatedthatmostrestaurantownersconsiderablyunderestimatedtheimportanceoftheappearanceofthemenu.Themagazinewentontosaythatthemenureallyhastwoimportantfunctions:(1)tosellfood,and(2)torepeatandemphasizetheuniqueatmosphereofthatrestaurant.[5]InspiteoftheDepressionofthe1930s,restaurantsdidwellandmenudesignbecameimportant.Therewereincreasingnumbersofmanydifferenttypesofrestaurantsduringthisdecade,includingcafeterias,drive-ins,andlunchcountersinstores,aswellasthetraditional,moreformalrestaurants.Manyoftherestaurantsdevelopedthemesinfood,decorationandmenustyles.[6]Progressinprinting,photography,andespeciallycolorphotographyopenedupmoreopportunitiesforcreativeexpression.DuringtheSecondWorldWarfoodrationingoftenhurtthebusinessofrestaurants,butassoonasvictorywasachieved,eatingoutbecameverypopularagain.[7]Inspiteoftherisksofcasualdiningandfast-foodrestaurants,themid-20thcenturyprovidedmanynewopportunitiesforcreativemenudesign.Bytheendofthe1960s,theincreasinglypopularcoffeeshopsandrestaurantsthatfeaturedasingularitemsuchaspizza,steak,orpancakesusednewmenugraphics.The1970sbroughtadeclineineatingout,butthe1980s,especiallyinhomeswherebothparentswereworking,broughtabigincreaseinthedemandformanytypesofrestaurants.Sincethen,menudesignhasprovidedtheAmericanpublicwithapleasingpreludetothediningexperience.[8]SomepopularhistoriansarestudyingmenusasaveryspecialkindofdocumentationofAmerica'sloveofeatingout.Formanygenerationsofdiners,takingarestaurantmenuhasbeenawayofpreservingamemoryordocumentingatriporavoyage.Manyrestaurantshaveprovidedcustomerswithsouvenirversionsoftheirmenus.Therestaurantownersbelievethatthisisagoodwayofadvertising.Thusthemenunowservesanew,butalsoimportantfunction.菜單1飲食的歷史告訴我們：在早期的餐館里，背誦餐館供給的菜肴成為越來越耗時(shí)的苦差事；因此，就產(chǎn)生了書面的菜單，以便指導(dǎo)用餐者挑選食物。這種菜單通常是手工寫在黑板上或列在一塊牌子上，黑板或牌子都要使顧客容易看見。印刷業(yè)的開展最終又引發(fā)了變革，同時(shí)又因?yàn)橐恍┎宛^層面的擴(kuò)大使得一份手寫菜單滿足不了實(shí)際需求，于是印刷菜單出現(xiàn)了。2紐約市德爾莫尼柯餐館于1834年在美國首次推出印刷菜單，因而常常受到人們的贊揚(yáng)。那種菜單，與同時(shí)期的其它菜單一樣，設(shè)計(jì)簡單，還提供了具體明確的信息。特殊的場合會引發(fā)人們對設(shè)計(jì)的獨(dú)特要求，最終產(chǎn)生了裝飾更精美的菜單。3然而，多數(shù)情況下，菜單的裝飾風(fēng)格是隨著時(shí)代的藝術(shù)潮流而變化的。19世紀(jì)后期的菜單，受維多利亞時(shí)代藝術(shù)的影響，裝飾華美，到了20世紀(jì)就被現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)所取代。平面造型藝術(shù)與印刷術(shù)的開展使得頗具特色的菜單封面藝術(shù)得以開展。4到了20世紀(jì)30年代，餐館為打造令人難忘的美餐，把菜單看作是實(shí)施這種方案的一局部。菜單可以引起食欲，講個(gè)笑話，介紹某食品，創(chuàng)造一種氣氛，講述一點(diǎn)飯店的歷史，而且最重要的是，推銷菜肴。餐飲業(yè)的出版物那么鼓勵把菜單作為經(jīng)營策略的一局部。全國餐飲協(xié)會每年舉辦全國最優(yōu)秀菜單競賽，屆時(shí)會有效地促進(jìn)菜單平面造型藝術(shù)的開展。指導(dǎo)這種評比的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括〔1〕有創(chuàng)意〔2〕清晰易讀〔3〕使用方便〔4〕銷售效果好。1935年11月這一期的?飯店管理?雜志指出：大多數(shù)飯店老板都在很大程度上低估了菜單外觀的重要性。該雜志接著說道，菜單其實(shí)有兩種重要的功能：〔1〕推銷菜肴〔2〕反復(fù)突出飯店的獨(dú)特魅力。5盡管30年代經(jīng)濟(jì)大蕭條，飯店卻生意良好，菜單設(shè)計(jì)也變得很重要。這十年內(nèi)，飯店種類不斷增多，除了傳統(tǒng)的較正規(guī)的飯店以外，還出現(xiàn)了如自助餐廳，免下車餐館，商店里的小吃部等。許多飯店在菜肴、裝飾和菜單風(fēng)格上還開展了自己的主題風(fēng)格。6印刷，攝影，尤其是彩色攝影方面的進(jìn)步為有創(chuàng)意的表現(xiàn)手法開拓了更多的時(shí)機(jī)。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，食品的定量供給常常影響飯店的生意，但是勝利后，出去吃飯就又馬上流行起來了。7盡管人們對吃飯?jiān)絹碓诫S意，同時(shí)快餐店大批涌現(xiàn)，但是20世紀(jì)中葉還是為有創(chuàng)意的菜單設(shè)計(jì)提供了很多新的時(shí)機(jī)。到60年代末期，越來越受歡送的小吃部和以專賣比薩餅、牛排或薄煎餅等特色食品的飯館都采用了新的菜單平面設(shè)計(jì)藝術(shù)。70年代外出就餐的人減少了。但是到了80年代，特別是那些父母都上班工作的家庭，使各種各樣餐館的需求量大幅度增加。從那時(shí)起，菜單設(shè)計(jì)就為美國公眾就餐提供了賞心悅目的前奏。8一些通俗歷史學(xué)家正在研究菜單，他們把菜單當(dāng)作美國人外出吃飯喜愛程度的一種特殊文獻(xiàn)資料。對于好幾代的就餐者來說，帶走飯店的菜單一直是他們保存一段記憶或記錄某次旅行或航行的手段。許多飯店為顧客提供專門留念用的菜單。飯店老板們相信這是一種很好的廣告手段。因此，現(xiàn)在菜單又多了一種新的但也是很重要的功能。CookingandCuisines[1]Onethingthatseparatesmanfromanimalsisman'spreferenceforcookedfood.Thehigherapeshavebeenfoundtosharewithmankindtheabilitytocommunicatebysoundandgesture,butnoapehasevercookeditsfood.Wealsolikeourfoodtoappealtooursensesoftasteandsmell,andwelikeittobeattractive.Oursensesareremarkablyacuteanddiscriminating,andallsocietieswhichhaveprogressedbeyondsimplesurvivalsatisfythehumanpleasureofgoodfood.Thegreatcuisinesoftheworldhavedevelopeddisheswhichappealbothtothetasteandtotheeye—colorandtextureareasimportantasflavor.[2]Therearethreeacknowledgedgreatnationalcuisines,French,IndianandChinese.FrenchcookingisgenerallyacknowledgedtobesupremeinEurope.Frenchcuisineusingbutter,cheeseandcreamistypicalofallgreatnationalcuisines:itcombinessimplicitywithsophistication,usesthenativeresourcesofFrance,hasgreatregionalspecialtiesandhasbecometrulyinternational.[3]Thesethreemajorcuisineshavedistinguishedthemselveseachbyonemajorcharacteristic.Frenchcookingwithbutter,cheeseandcreamissotypicaloftheircookingthatifomittedthewholecharacterofthecuisinewouldbedestroyed.Also,wineincookingisasinstinctivetoaFrenchcookastheuseofsoysauceistoaChinesecook.Asecondcuisine—Indiancookingisdistinguishedbytheuseofspices.Thethirdcuisineisdefinedbytheuseofriceasastaple—Chinabeingthesupremeexample.Ofcoursethesethreecuisinessharetheircharacteristicsinonewayoranother.Frenchcuisinecanboastsomefamousricedishes.SomeIndianregionalcookeryalsomakesuseofbutterandthedishesofSichuan,inChinesecuisine,arefamousfortheirfieryspices.Buttheseparationintothreemajorcuisinesdoesmarksomekindofdistinctivecharacteristicandthethreemajorcuisines,eachbasedonadifferentmajorcharacteristic,havepersistedforalongtimethroughouthumanhistory.[4]Theborderlinesbetweencuisinestylesareclearandhavechangedlessthaneitherlinguisticorracialboundaries.India'sgifttotheworldistheuseofspicestoenhancetheflavoroffoods,andIndiancookingpresentsadazzlingarrayofregionalvariations—fromthefieryhotcurriesofthesouthtothesubtlyspicedvegetariandishesofthenorthernregions.NothingrivalsthecolorandflavorofIndiandishes,andtheuseofriceasastaplelinksIndianandChinesecooking.Chinesecooksteachusthattexturemustneverbeneglected.LongagotheChinesebroughttoperfectiontheartofswiftcookingatveryhightemperatureinwhichvegetablesretaintheircrispnessandnutritionalgoodnesstoo.Mostofthepreparationtimeistakenupbythecuttingofvegetablesandthechoppingofmeat,notbytheactualcookingprocess.[5]TheregionalvarietyofChinesedishesisbewilderingtotheforeigner.Spicy,bland,sourandsweetareallrepresented.NonationalcuisineusesthenativeplantsandanimalsmorethantheChinese.Everypartofeveryediblevegetableoranimalseemstohaveitsuse.[6]Therearethreerecentthreatstokeepingnationalcuisines:1)therevolutioninworldtransportationandcommunication,2)theincreaseintradebetweennations,and3)thechangingroleofwomeninsociety.[7]Rapidandinexpensivetransportandcommunicationmaythreatennationalcuisines.Travelersfromothercountrieswantthekindoffoodtheyareusedtoathome.Thesecondthreatiscausedbytheflowoffoodsandfoodproductsfromonecountrytoanother.Conveniencefoodsdestroythecharmoftime-consumingcooking.Anargumentcanbemadeforprocessedfoods,andthegreatbenefitsoffreezing,freeze-dryingandcanning,butWesternfoodtechnologyisstillathreattonationalcuisines.[8]Finally,thechangingroleofwomeninfluencesnationalstylesofcooking.Thechangeswhichhavealreadytakenplacehavehadaprofoundeffectonthefamily,andwillcontinue.Womenhavebeentheprimefoodpreparersforthousandsofyears.Iftheyhavelesstimeandlessinclinationtospendlonghoursinfoodpreparationandcooking,thiswillinfluencethekindofdisheswhichafamilyeats.Nowwomencanexplorefurtherthantheirownimmediatelocalityandexperience,andgatherideasandrecipesfromotherpartsoftheworld,andincorporatetheseintotheircooking.However,thethreattonationalcuisinesremains―perhapsevenreinforcedbytheobviousbenefitsmentioned.[9]Topreservedistinctivenationalcuisinesmayhavesomethingtodowithhumanbehavior.Whatunitesallgreatnationalcuisines,besidesregionalvariety,ing