ITIF-促進(jìn)公平：為什么通用寬帶接入率很重要 Enabling Equity Why Universal -2023.8-

EnablingEquity:WhyUniversal

BroadbandAccessRatesMatter

JESSICADINE|AUGUST2023

Highratesofbroadbandadoptionbenefitallofsociety,yetthosewhostandtobenefitthemostarealsoleastlikelytobeonline.Pushinghardfornear-universalconnectivityiscrucialifwewanttechnologytohelpbridge,ratherthanwiden,existingdivides.

KEYTAKEAWAYS

1HighbroadbandconnectivityratesarepositivelylinkedtofactorssuchasGDPgrowthandstability.Theyenablejobs,promoteresiliencyinthefaceofdisasters,andsupportthemassiveandgrowingdigitaleconomy.

1Hugeonlinemarketplacesofeverystripearesubjecttonetworkeffects:Theybecomemorevaluabletoeveryuserthemoreusersthereare.Forallthesereasons,increasingconnectivityratesisbroadlybeneficial.

1Broadbandenablescheaper,moreconvenientaccesstocriticalresourcessuchashealthcareandgovernmentprograms,sopeoplewiththefewestresourcesareoftentheoneswhostandtobenefitthemostfrombeingconnected.

1Fromeveryangle,gettingofflinegroupsonline—andaimingforasclosetouniversalconnectivityratesaspossible—shouldbeapolicypriority.

1Doingsorequiresbothcompletingdeploymentandincreasingadoptionrates.

1CongressandtheadministrationshouldsustainfundingforsubsidyprogramssuchastheAffordableConnectivityProgram(ACP),buildeconomicimpactanalysesintothem,andsurveyhouseholdsthatremainoffline.

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CONTENTS

KeyTakeaways 1

Introduction 2

TheEconomicImpactofBroadband 3

BroadbandIsDirectlyRelatedtoGDPGrowth 3

BroadbandIncreasesEconomicResiliency 4

OnlineInstitutionsIncreaseResourceAccessibility 5

E-Government 5

SocialSafetyNets 7

Telehealth 8

PolicyRecommendations 10

FundtheACP 10

BuildEconomicImpactAnalysesIntoBroadbandFundingPrograms 11

SurveyHouseholdsontheImpactofRemainingOffline 12

Conclusion 12

Endnotes 13

INTRODUCTION

Inthethirddecadeofthe21stcentury,gettingonlineisnolongeroptional,andprovidingfinancialassistancetoU.S.householdsthatcan’taffordbroadbandshouldbeasmuchagivenasfoodstamps.Fromamacroperspective,greaterbroadbandconnectivityisrelatedtoeconomicgains,moreeconomicstability,andeffectiveparticipationinthemodernworld.Forthedoubtful,theCOVID-19pandemicshouldhavequelledanysensethatbringingallofsocietyonlinewasachoiceandnotanecessity.

Fromanindividualperspective,broadbandalsoequalizesotherresourcesinawaythatotherinfrastructuredoesnot.Forexample,broadbandoffershealthcareandeducationoverphysicallyuntraversablegeographicdistances,anditdemocratizesaccesstoclassesandotherresourcesthroughcheaperonlineversions.Theseadvantagessuggestthatgroupsthatcurrentlyspendmoreaccessingtheseresources—whetherintime,lostwages,orsheervolumeofapplications—willbenefitmorefromaccesstobroadbandthanwilltheirmoreadvantagedpeers.

Morebroadly,fromamacroperspective,highratesofbroadbandusebenefitsocietyandtheeconomy;andfromamicroperspective,thoseleastlikelytobeonlinearethosewhowouldinmanywaysbenefitmostfromit.Inbothcases,broadbandpolicyshouldprioritizeconnectingremainingofflinehouseholdsinordertoachieveuniversalconnectivity.

ThevastmajorityofAmericansareservedbybroadbandinfrastructure,andremainingdeploymentgapsshouldbeaddressedafterthenewfederalbroadbandprograms—andnewtechnologiessuchaslowEarthorbitsatellitesystems—arefullyimplementedanddeployed.

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Oncedeploymentiscomplete,theremainingpolicytaskistobuttressadoptionratesamongtheofflinepopulation.Nonadoptersremainsoforanumberofreasons,mostoftenduetoalackofinterestorinabilitytoaffordasubscription.

1

If,asappearstobethecase,notmuchcanorevenshouldbedoneonthesupplysidetosustainablylowerprices,andsincemostofflineconsumersarereactingtolackofinterestorpriceratherthannetworkunavailability,amajoravenueforgettingpeopleonlineisthroughconsumer-sidesubsidies.

Fromanindividualperspective,broadbandequalizesotherresourcesinawaythatotherinfrastructuredoesnot.

ThebestsubsidyprogramcurrentlyavailableistheuniversallypopularAffordableConnectivityProgram(ACP),whosefatecurrentlyhangsinthebalanceforlackofsustainablefunding.Findingthisfunding,andcontinuingtheprogram,shouldbenon-negotiableforacountrythatwantstoreapthefullbenefitsofbroadband.Atthesametime,U.S.broadbandpolicyingeneralshouldbemorecloselyshapedaroundresults.Thismeansbetterdatacollectiononsubscriptionsgeneratedbyongoingbroadbandprogramsandbetterunderstandingofthebenefitsofbeingonline,soallfuturefundingcanbeputwhereitwilldothemostgood.

THEECONOMICIMPACTOFBROADBAND

Itisbynowclosetoatruismthatbroadbandpenetrationisintimatelylinkedwitheconomicsuccess:Mostadvancedeconomiesarealsohighlyconnected,anditappearsimpossibletohaveonewithouttheother.

BroadbandIsDirectlyRelatedtoGDPGrowth

Alongstandingbodyofworkrelatesbroadbandpenetrationtoasociety’seconomicsizeandgrowth.A2011paperfoundthat,from1996to2007,a10percentincreaseinbroadbandaccessresultedinannualpercapitagrowthforOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)countriesofupto1.5percent.

2

Similarly,arecentNetwork:OnstudybyKatzandJungfindsthatfixedbroadbandadoptionaccountedfor10.9percentofeconomicgrowthintheUnitedStatesfrom2010through2020.

3

Byretroactivelydecomposinggrossdomesticproduct(GDP)growthoveradecadeintoitsvariouscauses,theresearchersarguedthattheimprovementsinbroadbandadoptionandspeedacrosstheUnitedStatesoverthecourseofthedecadeaccountedfor$1.3trillionofthe2020GDP,about$4,000foreachmemberofthepopulation.

4

Thebenefitsdisproportionatelyaccruedtolocationswithsteeperexpansionsinbroadbandnetworks.Inaseparatepaper,theauthorsalsoobservedreturnstoscaleinfixedbroadbandpenetration,withthemostdevelopedcountriesseeingthehighestGDPincreasesfromadditionalfixedbroadband.

5

Someofthiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatbroadbandaccessspursjobsbothdirectlyandindirectly.

6

Broadbanddeploymentcreatesjobsintheconstructionandmaintenanceofthatequipment.

7

Infact,a2009ITIFreportsuggestedinvestingininfrastructureindirectresponsetoaneconomicdownturn,arguingthattheinfusionoffundswouldcreate64,000directjobsinthetelecommunicationsandelectronicequipmentsectorsalone.

8

Theindirectjobcreationisevenlarger:AWorldBankstudyfindsthatbroadband-enabledjobseachcreatebetween2.5and4additionaljobs.

9

Brookingshasfurthernotedthatbroadbandalsoimprovesthehiringprocessmoregenerally;onthejob-seeker’ssidebyenablingfaster,moreconvenientonlinejobsearching

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andapplying,andonthebusiness’sside,e-recruitingcanbringmorediversepoolsofcandidatesforlowercosts.

10

Widespreadbroadbandisalsofoundationaltothemassivedigitaleconomy.TheU.S.BureauofEconomicAnalysisputsthevalueofthateconomyat$3.7trillionoftheU.S.grossoutputfrom2005to2020,andfurtherestimatesthatthedigitaleconomyaccountedfor10.3percentofGDP,and8millionjobs,in2021.

11

Thebenefitsofthiseconomyfarexceedthepriceofabroadbandsubscription,buttheyarepredicatedonwidespreadbroadbandadoption.

Inparticular,digitalmarketplacesaremadevaluablebytheirabilitytoconnectbuyersandsellersonline—sothevaluesof,say,Amazon,Uber,andeBayarecontingentoneachhavingenoughusersonitsplatform.ThisdynamicexistsbecauseAmazon,eBay,Uber,andmostbigonlinecompaniesarebuiltaroundthepremiseofnetworkeffects—thatis,theybecomemorevaluablethemorepeopleusethembecausepartofthevaluetheyprovideconsumersisaccesstotheotherusers.

12

Thispatternismostevidentin,forexample,Facebook,butitplaysaroleinmostonlinecompanies’businessmodelsaswell.EvenAmazonwouldn’tbeworthasmuchwithasinglesellerontheotherend.InsofarastheInternetitselfconnectspeopleandenablessharedresources,itsentirevaluereliesonnetworkeffectstoacertainextentaswell.

Relativelyminorinvestmentsontheconsumersidegenerateandsupportmuchlarger,economy-widebenefitsbyadvancingconnectivity.

Finally,thereareotherbenefitstodigitalizationthataren’taccountedforinsuchtraditionalmeasurementsasGDP,suchas,forexample,thevalueoffreedigitalservicesthroughapplicationssuchasFacebookandGoogle,andsmartphonecameras.

13

Thesignificantbenefitsofafullyconnectedeconomymaketherelativelysmallsubsidytoconnectadditionalusersaworthwhileinvestment.Toputthisallincontext,Lifeline,themainlow-incomesubsidyprogrampriortotheACP,spentabout$100persubscriptionitgeneratedinfiscalyear2021.

14

TheNationalTelecommunicationsandInformationAdministration’s(NTIA’s)InternetUseSurveyfindsthemajorityofofflinehouseholdscitingcostasthemainconstraintwouldbewillingtopay$10amonthforservice,whichmeansasubsidymakingupthedifferencebetweenthatandthefullcostofaplanmightencouragemanyofthemtogoonline.

15

Thisallsuggeststhatrelativelyminorinvestmentsontheconsumersidegenerateandsupportmuchlarger,economy-widebenefitsbyadvancingconnectivity.

BroadbandIncreasesEconomicResiliency

Digitalmarketplacesofferavenuesforeconomictransactionsthataremoreresilienttocertainexternalshockssuchasclimatedisastersandshelter-in-placeorders;telehealth,distancelearning,andwork-from-homecansustaintheeconomy;andenterprisescanoftenmaintainatleastsomeleveloffunctioningatthevirtuallevel.Infact,onlineplatformactivityinsocial-distancing-friendlyareas,suchasmobilepaymentsandonlinemarketplaces,increasedanaverageof20percentearlyintheCOVID-19pandemic.

16

Itisnosurprise,therefore,thatinadditiontoenablingeconomicgrowth,researchshowsthatbroadbandpenetrationenableseconomicresiliencyinthefaceofsomeexternalshocks.

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Forexample,anInternationalMonetaryFundworkingpaperbyCopestake,Estefania-Flores,andFurceriusesadifferences-in-differencesapproachtoexaminetheeffectsofdigitalizationonmultipleindustriesin75countries.

17

Here,theauthorsfoundthatmoredigitalizedindustriesseelesseconomicimpactfromrecessions.Firmsinmoredigitalizedindustriesseesmallerrevenuelosses,greaterhiringrates,andlargernetinflowsfollowingeconomicdownturns.ThisrelationshipappearstohaveonlyintensifiedsincetheCOVID-19pandemic,afterwhichforcedwidespreadadoptionhasmagnifiedtheeffectsofdigitalization.

18

Similarly,KatzandJungconductedanothereconometricanalysistoexaminethemitigatingeffectofdigitalinfrastructureontheeconomiccontractionscausedbytheCOVID-19crisisandfoundthatbroadbandhadastrongstabilizingeffectontheeconomy.

19

HighlyconnectedeconomiessuchasthoseoftheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStatessawlesseconomicharmfromthesamelevelofdiseaseseveritythandidless-connectedeconomies:Theformerwereabletomitigate21percentofCOVID-inducedeconomicharms.

20

Inpracticalterms,a2021DeloittesurveyfindsthatgovernmentagenciesoverwhelminglyreliedondigitalservicestogetthroughtheCOVID-19pandemic.

21

74percentofrespondentssaidthatdigitalcapabilitieshelpedagenciesfunctionthroughthepandemic.

22

Whenaskedwhygovernmentdigitalizationisimportant,oneofthemostcommonreasonsgivenbygovernmentofficialswastheneedforgreaterresilience.Asintheprivatesector,digitalaccessallowspublicsectorworkerstodotheirjobsremotely,tocontinuefunctionssuchastheprovisionofgovernmentbenefits,andtomaintainrelationshipswithconstituentsgivenshelter-in-placeordersorotherinterruptionstonormalday-to-dayfunctions.

ONLINEINSTITUTIONSINCREASERESOURCEACCESSIBILITY

Alesseasilyquantifiedbenefitofbroadbandisgreateraccesstoresourcesandinstitutions.Inparticular,e-governmentcanprovideamoreparticipatory,data-driven,andindividualizedformofgovernance.Onlinehealthcareandsocialsafetynetprogramshelpdemocratizeaccesstoresourcesandcutoutancillarycostssuchascommutesandextratimespentonpaperwork,whichoftenburdenmoreresource-scarcegroupsmostofall.

E-Government

Digitalgovernmentfacilitatescollaborationbetweencitizensandtheirgovernmentsandgreaterparticipationfromallstakeholders.Itenablescontinuous,comprehensivedatacollectionandsharingthathelpenableongoingreformsandeffectivelydesignedpolicies.

23

Whenaskedwhygovernmentdigitalizationisimportant,oneofthemostcommonreasonsgivenbygovernmentofficialswastheneedforgreaterresilience.

Partofthevalueofdigitalizinggovernmentisfoundinsimplydigitalizingandautomatingpreviouslyanalogfunctions.Digitalgovernmentpayments,forexample,aremoreefficientandsecurethansendingcashorchecksinthemail.A2017InternationalMonetaryFundbookestimatesthevalueofdigitalizinggovernmentpaymentsatroughly1percentofGDPpercountry,foratotalof$220billionto$320billionannuallyacrossdevelopingcountries.

24

Countriesthathadinvestedindigitalinfrastructuretoprovidepublicservicespriortothepandemicwereabletoprovideeasierandfasterpaymentsandaccesstobenefits.

25

Paperworkingeneraliscostly

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andtime-consuming:TaxescostAmericanssome9billionhoursofworkperyear.

26

E-filingcanminimizetimespentfilingtaxes,reducethelikelihoodofvisitsbytaxofficials,andevenmoderatelyincreasethetax-revenue-to-GDPratio.

27

Overall,theU.S.Treasuryhasidentified$1.4billionto$3billioninpotentialgovernment-widecostsavingsthroughdigitalizingandmodernizingprocesses.

28

OtherresearchhaslinkeddigitalpublicservicesintheEuropeanUniontohigheremploymentandexportrates.

29

Digitalreadinessingovernmentalsoopensthedoorfornewertechnologies:A2017Deloittestudy,forexample,findsthatuseofartificialintelligence(AI)toautomatecertaingovernmentworkcouldsavesome1.2billionfederalemployeeworkinghours,or$41.1billioninsalary.

30

Phase2ofdigitalgovernanceisimprovingandreimaginingprograms(usingdigitaltechnology)tobemorecitizen-focusedanddesignedaroundtheindividual.Forexample,theU.S.DepartmentofVeteranAffairshasdevelopedapersonalizedportalthatallowsuserstoonlyhavetologinonceandprovidesseamlessaccesstomultiplebenefits.Theredesignhasledtoa50percentincreaseinonlineapplicationsbyveterans.

31

Digitalizationofgovernmentalsocreatesopportunitiesformoreinclusivity.Forexample,thecityofAustinhasapilotprogramthatsendsaudiocuesonthestatusofpublictransportationtovisuallyimpairedriders’mobiledevices.

32

Finally,technologyhelpsimprovegovernmentcapacity.IntheearlydaysoftheCOVID-19pandemic,RhodeIslandmoveditsunemploymentinsurancecontactcentertothecloud,increasingitscapacityfrom75concurrentcallsto2,000.

33

Inbothstagesofe-governmentevolution,greateruseofonlinetoolshelpsgovernmentsprovide informationtoconstituents,solicitmoreinput,andoverallengagemoredirectlyandmore interactivelywiththegoverned.TheUnitedNations(UN)regularlypublishesane-governmentsurveythatexaminesglobaltrendsine-governmentandranksmembers’performanceonfactorssuchasthenumberandqualityofservicesofferedonline.

34

TheUNsimultaneouslyderivesan“e-participation”scoreofitsmemberstatesbasedonfactorssuchashowtheyprovideconstituentspublicaccesstoonlineinformationtoencourageparticipation,howmuchtheyengagewithcitizens,andtowhatextentconstituentshaveasayinpoliciesthroughonlinemechanisms.Overall,therelationshipbetweene-governmentande-participationissoentrenchedthatstrongperformersinonealmostinvariablydowellintheother.

Greateruseofonlinetoolshelpsgovernmentsprovideinformationtoconstituents,solicitmoreinput,andoverallengagemoredirectlyandmoreinteractivelywiththegoverned.

Allthesepotentialbenefitsrelyonbroadbandnetworksthatbringconnectivitytobothgovernmentbodiesandenoughofthepopulationfore-governmenttojustifythetransition.AsolidthirdoftheUN’sE-Governmentrankingiscalculatedbyassessingmemberstates’telecommunicationsinfrastructure.

35

Inturn,infrastructureneedstobeaffordableandaccessibleenoughforthemajorityofthepopulationtosubscribetoit.Ofthe10countrieswiththehigheste-governmentscoresin2022,only1hadbroadbandadoptionratesbelow90percentofhouseholds(Australia,at89percent).

36

Eighthadatleast92percentofhouseholdsconnectedtofixedormobilebroadband.Therefore,90percentconnectivityislikelyaprerequisitetobuildinganeffectivee-government.

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TechnologyinGovernment

Governmentplaysacriticalroleintheresponsibleuseoftechnology.GovernmentrelianceondigitalservicesopensthedoortomoreadvancedtechnologiessuchasAI,andautomatingdecision-makingbasedondataneedstobedonecarefullyorriskperpetuatinglongstandinginequities.Governmentrelianceonvirtualresourcescanalsoengendernewformsofinaccessibility,andwebsitesmustbeupdatedtomoreeffectivelymeetthediverseneedsofconstituents.

37

Inadditiontotheneedforgovernmentsthemselvestoavoidthesepitfallsbyresponsiblydeployingtechnology,thereisalsoaclearroleforthemtoplaybyprovidingguidancetotheprivatesectoronhowtoaddresstheserisks.Thereis,therefore,acriticalneedfordigitalgovernmentsthatcanthoughtfullyuseAIandotheradvancedtechnologyinwaysthatconsiderpossiblerisks,andtosetguidelinesforthetechnology’sresponsibleimplementation.Noneofthisisreallypossiblewithgovernmentsthatarethemselvesill-equippedtodeployonlineresources,orwithpopulationsthatareill-equippedtoreceivethem.

SocialSafetyNets

Oneofthemostcriticalfunctionsofagovernmentistoprovidesafetynetprograms,andeffectiveonlineversionsoftheseinstitutionscanmaketheseprogramsaccessibletothepeoplewhoneedthemmost.

38

Asinanysector,digitalizationcanallowformoreseamless,lesscomplicatedservices,thusmaximizingtheireffectiveness,providinggreaterinclusivity,andfosteringcitizens’trust.

39

Relianceonsafetynetprogramsisnotuncommon:AnUrbanInstituteReportfindsthat55percentoflow-and-moderateincomehouseholds(makinguptofourtimesthefederalpovertyline[FPL])appliedforatleastonesafetynetprogramin2021.

40

Ofthatgroup,40percentciteddifficultiesenrollinginmajorprogramssuchasunemploymentinsuranceandtheSupplementalNutritionAssistanceProgram(SNAP).

41

Problemswiththeapplicationprocessofsuchprogramsareincrediblycommonandfrequentlyresultineligiblehouseholdsnotreceivingassistance.OverhalfofhouseholdsthatleaveCalFresh,California’sSNAPprogram,arestilleligibleforthebenefitsanddosowhenit’stimetore-enroll.

42

NinemillioneligibleAmericansfailedtoreceiveuninsurancebenefitsintheearlydaysoftheCOVID-19pandemic.

43

Forsomethingascriticalasasafetynetprogram,thedrop-offcausedbyadministrativefrictioncanleadtoseverelossesamongaffectedhouseholds.

Evenwhenenrollmentissuccessful,safetynetprogramscomewithhugeadministrativeburdens.Theundueamountoftimeandeffortpeopleneedtoputintoapplyingforgovernmentservicesandworkingthroughbureaucraticinefficienciesisoftenreferredtoasthe“timetax,”amassiveexpenditureofresources.In2017,forexample,Americansspentacollective11.5billionhoursonpaperworkforfederalagencies.

44

Thistaxdisproportionatelyaccruestolow-incomegroupsmostreliantongovernmentresources—thesamegroupswhoareleastlikelytohaveexpendableincomeforadditionalchildcareorextragasmoney,andmostvulnerabletolosthoursofwagesandwhateverelseisspenttoaccessthoseresources.

Onlinesocialprogramsaremoreefficientandconvenientandcansuccessfullyreachmorepeople.Forexample,theSpecialSupplementalNutritionProgramforWomen,Infants,andChildren(WIC)maderemotecertificationprocessesandotherremoteserviceswidelyavailableduringtheCOVID-19pandemic,whichresultedina12percentincreaseinchildparticipation.

45

Betterself-servicesuchastheabilitytouploaddocumentsbysmartphonesavesenrolleesthe

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timethatwouldotherwisebespenttalkingtoagents,commutingtoanagencyormailroom,oraccessingaprinter.

46

Onlineenrollmentenablesreceiptofimportantdocumentswhenrecipientsmovefrequentlyordon’thaveastableaddress,asiscommonamonglow-incomepeople.

47

Afull27percentofadultsinhouseholdsearninglessthan$30,000arealsodependentontheirsmartphonesforInternetaccess,soprogramsthatprioritizemobile-friendlywebsitescanfurtherextendtheirreach.

48

Some77percentofsafetynetprogramscurrentlyhaveonlineapplicationsavailable.

49

Someprogramsarealsoonlyavailableonline:Thechildtaxcreditapplicationforhouseholdsthatdon’tregularlyfiletaxes,forexample,isonlyofferedthroughanonlineportal.

50

Andsometimes,aswasthecaseduringtheCOVID-19pandemic,onlineaccessistheonlytypeofaccessavailable.

51

Sincetheneedforfinancialassistanceoftenextendstomultipleareasoflife,broadbandsubsidiessuchastheACPareintegraltogettingeligiblehouseholdsconnectedtootherresourcestheyneed.

Thetimetaxdisproportionatelyaccruestothelow-incomegroupsmostreliantongovernmentresources.

Asasociety,we’veagreedtoprovideparticularsafetynets,anditbenefitsnoonetomakethoseservicesinaccessibletothepeoplethatneedthemmost.ThemajorityoftheU.S.population—70percent—willdependonsomeformofsafetynetprogramintheirlifetime.

52

Moreover,effective,well-functioningsocialsafetynetshavebeenshowntobenefiteveryone,notjustthosetheydirectlyassist.Economicresearchhasfoundthatantipovertyprogramsoftenliftpeopleoutofpoverty—andhelpmitigatepoverty’sattendanthighcostsofpoorhealth,highercrimeandincarcerationrates,andlowerproductivity—andincreaserecipients’economicmobility,thussupportingthegrowthoftheeconomyatlarge.

53

Asidefromthebenefitsoftheprogramsthemselves,efficientlyrunprogramsofanystripereduceextraneouspaperworkandadministrativebureaucracythatalsohamperenrollment.Makingtheseprogramsaccessiblewillmaximizetheirbenefits—andkeytodoingthatisensuringsmoothfunctioningofonlineservicesandprovidingbroadbandaccessforthosewhoneedit.

Telehealth

Health,especiallyatthecommunitylevel,isintimatelyrelatedtoothermeasuresrelatedtosocioeconomicstatus,includinggeographiclocationandneighborhoodcharacteristics,economicstability,andbroadbandaccess.Povertycanpresentabarriertomanyelementsofhealthylivingsuchashigh-qualityfoods,exercise,andpreventativehealthcare.

54

Thestresscausedbypovertycanitselfcausepoorhealthoutcomes,andmanyfactorsleadingtolowersocioeconomicstatusarerelatedtothosethatpredictillhealth.

55

Ontheflipside,unexpectedorseriousillnesscangeneratemedicalbillsthatsendahouseholdintopoverty.

56

Thisrelationshipmeansmanyofthesamegroupsthataredisproportionatelyofflinearealsomorepronetohealthproblemsandasubsequentneedforhealthcare.Theriseoftelehealthhasincreasedtheaccessibilityofhealthcare,particularlyforthosewho’dotherwisefaceaprohibitivelylongcommute,whoseworkhoursareinflexible,orwhohavenomoneyforchildcare—inotherwords,particularlyforhouseholdsthatareleastlikelytobeonlinetoreceiveit.

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Telehealthappointmentsofferacheaperalternativetotraditionalin-personvisits.

57

One2017surveyestimatesthecostofatelehealthvisitforanacuterespiratoryinfectiontobe$79,halftheestimatedcostforthesamevisitinperson.

58

Telehealthcanalsohelpmitigatetheassociatedtravelandwaittimesoftraditi