語(yǔ)言學(xué)學(xué)名詞解釋

語(yǔ)言學(xué)學(xué)名詞解釋Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificorsystematicstudyof(human)language.ThewordlanguageprecededbyzeroarticleinEnglishimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,FrenchandJapanese,butlanguagesingeneral.Thewordstudydoesnotmean“l(fā)earn”but“investigate”.Thewordscientificreferstothewayinwhichlanguageisstudied.Itisascienceinthesensethatitscientificallystudiestherules,systemsandprinciplesofhumanlanguages.Itdealswithawiderangeoflinguisticphenomena,analyzesthem,andmakesgeneralstatementsaboutthem.Linguisticsisalwaysguidedbythe3canonsofscience:(ece)exhaustiveness: itstrivesforthorough-goingnessintheexaminationofrelevantmaterials;consistency: thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatementeconomy:otherthingsbeingequal,ashorterstatementoranalysisistobepreferredtoonethatislongerormorecomplex.(ece)Thesubjectmatteroflinguisticsisallnaturallanguage,livingordead.Linguisticshas2mainpurposes:itstudiesthenatureoflanguageandtriestoestablishatheoryoflanguage,anddescribeslanguagesinthelightofthetheoryestablished.Itexaminesalltheformsoflanguageingeneralandseeksascientificunderstandingofthewaysinwhichitisorganizedtofulfilltheneedsitservesandthefunctionsitperformsinhumanlifelinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaratleastin3basicways:Linguisticsdescribeslanguagesanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectness.Linguistsareinterestedinwhatissaid.Sotheyareoftensaidtobedescriptive.Linguistsregardthespokenlanguageasprimary.Itisbelievedthatspeechcameintobeingfirstforanyhumanlanguageandthewritingsystemcamealongmuchlater.TraditionalgrammarisbasedonLatinandittriestoimposetheLatincategoriesandstructuresonotherlanguages,whilelinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmerits.Forastudentoflanguage,someknowledgeoflinguisticsisofbothinterestandimportance.Forateacherofforeignlanguages,hewilldefinitelyagreatdealfromtheknowledgeoflinguistics.Foraresearcher,thereisevenmorescopefordisplayinghisabilities.Whystudylinguistics?Linguisticstakesananalyticalapproachtothestudyoflanguage,andfocusondevelopingskillsindataanalysis,problemsolving,andlogicalthinkingthatcanbeappliedtomanyfields.Itisaninterdisciplinarysubject.Linguisticsisasciencethatisstillinitsinfancybutundergoingrapiddevelopment,anditis“apilot ? ，，science.Whatandhowlinguistsstudylanguage?natureoflanguage(focusonlanguageitself)natureofacquisition(focusonlearners)natureofteaching(focusonteachers)Theprocessoflinguisticstudycanbesummarizedasfollows:.First,certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;.Next,basedonthesegeneralizations,hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;.Andfinallyalinguistictheoryisconstructedaboutwhatlanguageisandhowitworks.Generallinguistics:Thestudyoflanguageasawhole.Itdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.Microlinguistics（微觀語(yǔ)言學(xué)）includes6branches,namely,phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semanticsandpragmatics.Itstudieslanguageitself.Macrolinguistics（宏觀語(yǔ)言學(xué)）studieslanguageinuse practicalusage.macrolinguisticsincludes:Sociolinguisticsstudiestherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety:howsocialfactorsinfluencethestructureanduseoflanguage.AnothernameforsociolinguisticsisthesociologyoflanguagePsycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageandmind:thementalstructuresandprocesseswhichareinvolvedintheacquisition,comprehensionandproductionoflanguage.Neurolinguisticsorneurologicallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageprocessingandlanguagerepresentationinthebrain.Stylisticsisthestudyofhowliteraryeffectscanberelatedtolinguisticfeatures.Itusuallyreferstothestudyofwrittenlanguage,includingliterarytexts,butitalsoinvestigatesspokenlanguagesometimes.Discourseanalysis,ortextlinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontextsinwhichlanguageisused.

Computationallinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichemploysmathematicaltechniques,oftenwiththehelpofacomputer.functionallinguistics；vsappliedaninstrumentfororganizing,andconveyinginformation.thedifferentbranchesoftherearesomedistinctionsofsuchas:vsfunctionallinguistics；vsappliedaninstrumentfororganizing,andconveyinginformation.thedifferentbranchesoftherearesomedistinctionsofsuchas:vsformallinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsisprimarilyconcernedwiththeapplicationoflinguistictheories,methodsandfindingstotheelucidationoflanguageproblemswhichhaveariseninotherareasofexperience.Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）：Phoneticsisthescientificstudyofspeechsounds.Itstudieshowspeechsoundsarearticulated,transmitted,andreceived.Itisapurescienceandexaminesspeechsoundsingeneral.Phonetics:Thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds.Phonology（音系學(xué)/音位學(xué)）：Thedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.Phonologyisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsfunctioninalanguage.Itstudiesthewaysspeechsoundsareorganized.Itcanbeseenasthefunctionalphoneticsofaparticularlanguage.Morphology（形態(tài)學(xué)，詞法學(xué)）:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords.Morphologyisthestudyoftheformationofwords.Itisabranchoflinguisticswhichbreakswordsintomorphemes.Syntax（句法學(xué)）：Thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences.Syntaxdealswiththecombinationofwordsintophrases,clausesandsentences.Itisthegrammarofsentenceconstruction.Semantics（語(yǔ)義學(xué)）isabranchoflinguisticswhichisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuse.Itdealswithhowspeakersuselanguageinwayswhichcannotbepredictedfromlinguisticknowledgealone,andhowhearersarriveattheintendedmeaningofspeakers.Inabroadsense,pragmaticsstudiestheprinciplesobservedbyhumanbeingswhentheycommunicatewithoneanother.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thisdefinitioniswidelyacceptedbecauseitincludessomeoftheimportantcharacteristicsofhumanlanguage.Languageassystem Thekeywordinthe1r?, ?j? ? ".八一" t ?definitionissystem.Languageissystematic.Otherwisewewouldnotbeabletolearnoruseitconsistently.Eachlanguagesystemcontainstwosubsystems:asystemofsoundandasystemofmeaning.Languageisasystem—elementsinitarenotarrangedandcombinedrandomly,butaccordingtosomerulesandprinciples.Languageasarbitrary Thereisnonaturalrelationshipbetweenthesoundandwhatitmeansinacertainlanguage.Therelationbetweensoundandmeaningisalmostalwaysarbitraryorconventional.Therelationbetweensoundandmeaningisalmostalwaysarbitrary.Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.RomeoandJulietTherelationbetweensoundandmeaningisalmostalwaysconventional《荀子?正名》：“名無(wú)固宜，約之以命，約定俗成謂之宜，異于約則謂之不宜。名無(wú)固實(shí)，約之以命實(shí)，約定俗成，謂之實(shí)名。名有固善，徑易而不拂，謂之善名。”《道德經(jīng)》第一章道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。無(wú)名天地之始；有名萬(wàn)物之母。Languageasvocal By"vocal"wemeanthattheprimarymediumofalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemmightbe.Languageassymbol Languageisjustsymbolforthethingitrefers.Languageisasymbolicsystem.Languageashuman Languageishuman-specific,itisverydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystems.Nosystemofanimalcommunicationmakesuseofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage.Languageascommunication Languageisusedforhumancommunication.Itallowspeopletosaythingstoeachotherandexpresstheircommunicativeneeds.Designfeaturerefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitformanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Arbitrariness:thereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.Productivityorcreativity:man’slinguisticabilitywhichenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingthesentenceswhichwereneverheardbefore.Dualityordoublearticulation:thisorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels--alevelofsounds,alevelofmeaning.Displacement:Displacementisapropertyoflanguageenablingpeopletotalkaboutthingsremoteeitherinspaceorintime.CulturaltransmissionLanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itcannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.Ahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirelanguage.Whatlanguagethebabyisgoingtospeakisdeterminedbythecultureheisborninto.Interchangeabilityorreciprocity:mancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.Specialization:mandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.Speechisaspecializedactivity.Weuseitinadetachedmanner.LanguagefunctionsasaprincipalmeansofcommunicationItalsofunctionsassocialcontrolItisnotonlyapsychologicalphenomenonbutalsoasocialfactTheprimaryfunctionoflanguageistotransmitinformationandtoconveycommands,feelingsandemotions.Languageisatoolofcommunication.“Communication”canbeusedtocovermuchofthefunctionoflanguage.Herearesomeofthemajorcategories:Thefunctionsoflanguage:Phaticfunction/communion（寒暄功能）：Languageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherservethisfunction.Directive（指令）function:Languageservesadirectivefunctionwhenitisusedtogetthehearerdosomething.Mostimperativesentenceshavethisfunction."Getout!""Closethewindow,please.","Walkslowly"areafewexamples.Informative（信息）function:Languageservesaninformativefunctionwhenitisusedtotellwhatthespeakerbelieves,togiveinformationaboutfactsortoreasonthingsout.Informativefunctionismetthroughdeclarativesentences.Suchinformativestatementsareeithertrueorfalse.Interrogative（疑問(wèn)）function:Languageseversaninformativefunctionwhenitisusedtogetinformationfromothers.Allquestionsthatexpectanswershavethisfunction,suchas:"Whenwillthemeetingbegin?"Expressive（表達(dá)）function:Languageservesanexpressivefunctionwhenitisusedtorevealthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Ejaculationslike:"Goodheavens!"*toreleaseinnerfeelingsEvocative（情感）function:Theevocativefunctionistheuseoflanguagetoarousecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimistoamuse,startle,anger,soothe,worryorplease.Performative（施為）function:Languageisusedtodothingsortoperformacts.Mannerofarticulationrefertothemanner

?OAi^diJOSQjdpayiBOuoq.joqjb曲qq.缶嘰ruuMopXeyoq.paijq,sjBunnujS|Buoiq,ipujq,sy?XbsA[[日gcreoydoadq/eqMaqijosapoq.sq.dinaq.q.uqj-aAiq-diJosspsisoiq-SinSui]；ujapoui】sow（以易易答）I"OA叫】jo叫出（^M）sdiq叫ijo-dvqs叫］（即珀非新（口）q】now叫1joSuiuodo叫］（要呈）onSuoi叫ijoA%"叫電h叫］：oq.SuipjoooepsTjissupsqire。s3uoq】qdouow（旻勒）1叫'（旻融：t）歡1策，（旻逸T）I叫日*d，（旻醇早）JB|09A|U，（旻早）［可U3Q（旻爆兇）1叫uopoiqvi，（旻場(chǎng)及）［引q^uq，（旻驟）sopijS，（旻曹）s［四如'（旻驅(qū)）spinbiq（旻瀚潺）s。昨。！弟典'（旻^）S9Aiq.U0TJJqs]㈣'^）S9Aiq.U0TJJqs]㈣'（易鍛醬）sdois:sqxreuosuooJO UOiq-BOTJISSUIQ?po^uojostuoiq.onjq.sqosjo^mooujcloqq.oq.sjqjojuoiq.ufnoTq.j^josoufcl叫1puu'psq-uajostuoiq.onjq.sqoqoiqMutDescriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguage,whileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguageWhenwestudylanguageatoneparticulartime,itiscalledsynchroniclinguistics.synchroniclinguisticsfocusesonthestateoflanguageatanypointinhistorywhilediachronicorhistoricallinguisticsfocusesonthedifferencesintwoormorethan2statesoflanguageoverdecadesorcenturies.Tostudylanguagediachronicallyreliesonthesynchronicstudyoflanguage.Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguisticsarecorrelatedinthevalidstudyoflanguage.Linguistsregardthespokenlanguageasprimary.Itisbelievedthatspeechcameintobeingfirstforanyhumanlanguageandthewritingsystemcamealongmuchlater.Languageisprimarilyvocal.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstoparticularrealizationsoflangue.Langueisthesocial,conventionalsideoflanguage.Paroleisindividualizedspeech.Langueistheabstractknowledgenecessaryforspeaking,listening,writingandreading.Paroleistheconcretemanifestationoflanguageeitherthroughspeechorwriting.Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic.Paroleismorevariableandmaychangeaccordingtocontextualfactors.Langueisthecode.ParoleisthemessageCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations.Performancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）What’sPhonetics?Thescientificstudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanlanguagesiscalledphonetics.Thetaskofphoneticsistoidentifywhatarespeechsoundsinalanguage,andthentostudytheircharacteristics.Thethreemainbranchesofphoneticsi）articulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）（ii） auditoryphonetics（聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）（iii） acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）Thephonicmediumoflanguageconsistsofindividualspeechsoundsthataremeaningfulinhumancommunication.Phonologyisthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.Phonologyisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsfunctioninalanguage.Itstudiesthewaysspeechsoundsareorganized.Itcanbeseenasthefunctionalphoneticsofaparticularlanguage.Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferinapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisconcernedwithallthespeechsoundsusedinallhuman languages:how theyareproduced,how theydiffer from eachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phone音素：thespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Notallphonesdistinguishmeaning.Phoneme（音位）:thephonologicalunitoflanguagePhoneme（音位）isanabstractunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Phoneme（音位）isnotasoundthatispronounced,butacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Itisabasicunitinphonology.Whenafeaturedistinguishesonephonemefromanotheritisadistinctivefeature（aphonemicfeature）.Inadditiontovoicing（濁音化），placeofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）andmannerofarticulation（發(fā)音方式）arealsotheprincipaldistinctivefeaturesofconsonants.Minimalpairsare2wordswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring.E.g.site&sidePitchistheperceivedfrequencyofasoundwave.Conceptualmeaningmeansthatthemeaningofwordsmaybediscussedintermsofwhattheydenoteorreferto.Connotativemeaningisthecommunicativevaluethatawordoracombinationofwordshasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Socialmeaningisthemeaningwhichanexpressionconveysaboutthecontextsorsocialcircumstancesofitsuse.ItchieflyincludesstylisticmeaningofanutteranceReflectivemeaningisthemeaningwhicharisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeanings,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Theassociationsawordgetsbecauseofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitslinguisticcontextarecalledcollocativemeanings.Thematicmeaningi