UNCATD：可持續(xù)經(jīng)濟(jì)多樣化的近期動(dòng)態(tài)、挑戰(zhàn)和機(jī)遇

UnitedNations

TD/B/C.II/MEM.4/28

GE.23-13948(E)

UnitedNationsConferenceDistr.:GeneralonTradeandDevelopment17July2023

Original:English

TradeandDevelopmentBoard

Investment,EnterpriseandDevelopmentCommission

Multi-yearExpertMeetingonInvestment,InnovationandEntrepreneurship

forProductiveCapacity-buildingandSustainableDevelopment

Tenthsession

Geneva,27-28September2023

Item3oftheprovisionalagenda

Recentdevelopments,challengesandopportunitiesin

sustainableeconomicdiversification

Summary

Theworldisexperiencingtheinitialphaseofanewtechnologicalparadigmbasedonrenewableenergysourcesandgreentechnologies.Thisshiftopensgreenwindowsofopportunity,thatis,time-boundfavourableconditionsfordevelopingcountriestocatchupanddiversifyeconomiesalonggreenerpaths.Therearethreemainpathsbywhichdevelopingcountriescancapturethebenefitsofthegreenrevolution,asfollows:developdomesticrenewableenergyindustriesandtechnologies;explorethesynergiesbetweendigitalandgreentechnologies,creatingatwintransition,topromotethegreeningofglobalvaluechainswhileusingavailableopportunitiestomoveupvaluechains;andidentifygreenerandmoreproductiveproductsthatcanbuildoncurrentcapacities,todiversifyeconomies.However,noneofthesepathsispursuedautomatically.Governmentsneedtocarefullydesignandimplementpolicies,tostrengthennationalcapabilities,improveaccesstoexternalknowledgeandtechnologyandprovideanenablingenvironmentforthedevelopmentofgreenindustries.Developingcountriesalsoneedsupportfromtheinternationalcommunity.Activeeffortsneedtobemadetocollaborate,toprovidesupportforthedevelopmentofgreeninnovationandtoensurethatallhaveaccesstotheknowledgeandtechnologygenerated.Theinternationalcommunityshouldimproveconsistencybetweentrade,intellectualpropertyrightsandenvironmentalagreements,ensuringthatinternationaltraderulesandintellectualpropertyrightsdonothindertheeffortsofdevelopingcountriestoadoptanddevelopgreentechnologies,therebypromotingeconomicdiversificationanddevelopmentthroughsustainablepathways.

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I.Introduction

1.Theworldisfacingsocialandeconomicchallengesofanunprecedentednature.Manycountriesareattemptingtoreversethelossescausedbythecascadingcrisesthathavefollowedthepandemic,includingtherepercussionsofthewarinUkraine.Inparticular,climatechangeimpactsthreatenhard-wondevelopmentgainsandmaketheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsmoredifficult.Thesechallengesnecessitateatransformationtowardsmorediversified,productiveandsustainableeconomies,tospureconomicgrowth,createmoreandbetterjobsandincreaseresiliencetofuturecrises.ThisisinlinewiththeBridgetownCovenant,whichidentifies“transformingeconomiesthroughdiversification”asoneofthefourmajortransformationsneededtomovetoamoreresilient,digitalandinclusiveworldofsharedprosperity.1Insuchpursuits,developingcountriesstrivetofostertheemergenceofmoreproductiveandsustainableeconomicactivitiesgiventhetechnologicallevelofthecurrentproductionbaseandtheincentivescreatedbydomesticandglobaldemand.

2.Agreentransformation,supportedbyfrontiertechnologies,offersaviableroutebywhichdevelopingcountriescanclaimagencyinthedevelopmentnarrativeandmovefromcrisistosustainabledevelopment.Developingcountriesareurgedtoseizetheopportunitypresentedbythegreenrevolution,whichholdsthepotentialtosignificantlyimprovelivelihoods,enhanceproductivityandreducegreenhousegasemissions.Experiencehasshownthatmissingoutontheearlystageofatechnologicalrevolutioncreatesgapsthat,later,aredifficulttoclose.Atthebeginningofanewtechnologywave,eachcountryisinasimilarposition;earlyadoptersmoveaheadquickerandcreateadvantagesthatmakeitdifficultforotherstocatchup.However,atpresent,fewdevelopingcountrieshavetheneededcapacitiestotakeadvantageofgreentechnologies.Developingcountriesneedstrongresponses,includinggovernmentpoliciesandprivatesectorinitiatives,andthesupportoftheinternationalcommunity,tobuildabsorptiveandinnovation-relatedcapacitiestouse,adoptandadaptnewtechnologiesandinnovations.

3.Challengesandopportunitiesindevelopingcountrieswithregardtodiversifyingeconomiestowardssectorsassociatedwithlowerlevelsofemissionsareexaminedinthisnote,alongwiththepolicies,instrumentsandinstitutionalreformsneededatthenationalandinternationallevelstopromotemoresustainablediversificationindevelopingcountries,tobringaboutinnovationsthataregoodforpeopleandfortheplanet.Thedocumentaddressesthefollowing:challengesinopeninggreenwindowsofopportunity,inchapterII;technologicalopportunitiesforsustainableeconomicdiversification,inchapterIII;andtheroleofnationalpoliciesandinternationalcollaborationinsupportingdevelopingcountriesinharnessingthebenefitsofgreentechnologiesanddiversifyingproductioninasustainablemanner,inchapterIV.QuestionsfordiscussionareproposedinchapterV.

II.Challengesinopeninggreenwindowsofopportunity

4.Theworldeconomyisundergoingthebeginningofagreentechnologicalrevolution,characterizedbygreenwindowsofopportunity,thatis,time-boundfavourableconditionsfordevelopingcountriestocatchupandpromoteeconomicdiversificationanddevelopmentthroughnewtechnologiesandinnovations.Demandforandtheapplicationoftechnologiesthataddressclimatechangearequicklyincreasing,encompassingnotonlygreentechnologies,suchasthoserelatedtotheuseofrenewableenergysources,butalsothestrategicuseofotherfrontiertechnologiessuchasartificialintelligence,bigdataandnanotechnology.

5.UNCTAD,inTechnologyandInnovationReport2023:OpeningGreenWindows-TechnologicalOpportunitiesforaLow-CarbonWorld,highlightsgreenwindowsofopportunityanddiscusses17frontiertechnologies,definedasnewandrapidlydevelopingtechnologiesthattakeadvantageofdigitalizationandconnectivity,whicharedividedinto

1TD/541/Add.2.

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threebroadcategories.2Estimatesindicatethatthesetechnologiesalreadyrepresenta$1.5trillionmarket,whichcouldgrowto$9.5trillionby2030.Suchexpansionembodiessignificanteconomicgains,suchasthroughthecreationofnewjobs.Forexample,3.3milliondirectjobsareexpectedtobecreatedinthewindenergysectorby2025.3

6.Manydevelopingcountrieshaveabundantnaturalresourcestodeveloprenewableenergysources,yettheopeningofgreenwindowsofopportunityisnotautomatic.Newsectorsbuildonexistingknowledge,skillsandinfrastructureinaneconomy,andthedevelopmentofnewsectorsoftenrequiresinvestmentinresearchanddevelopmentandsupportandincentivemeasuresfromtheGovernment.Developingcountriesoftenfacebarriersintheseareas,particularlyintermsofinfrastructure,financingandinnovationcapabilities.AsdiscussedinTechnologyandInnovationReport2023,thereisagapbetweendevelopedanddevelopingcountriesintheabilitytoadoptanddevelopfrontiertechnologies.Themarketoffrontiertechnologiesissuppliedprimarilybyafewcountries,notablyChina,theUnitedStatesofAmericaandcountriesinWesternEurope.Thereisasimilarpatternofconcentrationinknowledgegeneration.PublicationsandpatentsrelatedtofrontiertechnologiesarelargelyconcentratedinChinaandtheUnitedStates,whichtogetheraccountforaround30percentofglobalpublicationsandalmost70percentofpatentsineachtechnologycategory.Inaddition,thepaceoftradeexpansionisnotequal.Withregardtogreentechnologies,forexample,in2018-2021,thetotalexportsofdevelopedcountriesgrewfromaround$60billionto$156billion(increasingbyafactorof2.6),whilethetotalexportsofdevelopingcountriesgrewfrom$57billionto$75billion(increasingbyafactorof1.3).Todate,developedcountrieshavetakenadvantagesofmostoftheopportunities;inordertocapturethegainsassociatedwithgreenwindowsofopportunity,developingcountriesneedtoenhancerelevantcapabilitiesinatimelyfashion,sincetiminginfluencessuccessinthisendeavour.

7.Preparednessamongcountriestouse,adoptandadaptfrontiertechnologiesreflectsthesedisparities.ThefollowingfivedimensionsareconsideredundertheUNCTADfrontiertechnologyreadinessindexinordertoassesssuchpreparedness:informationandcommunicationstechnology(ICT)deployment;skills;researchanddevelopmentactivity;industryactivity;andaccesstofinance.4Theassessmentin2023considered166economies,rankedaccordingtoreadinesslevel.Therankingisdominatedbyhigh-incomecountries,ledbytheUnitedStatesandfollowedbySweden,Singapore,SwitzerlandandtheKingdomoftheNetherlands.Emergingeconomiesareprimarilyfoundinthesecondquarterofthelistwith,inparticular,lowerscoresinskillsandICT.

8.Thegapsarewidebetweendevelopedcountries,developingcountries,theleast

developedcountries,landlockedcountries,smallislanddevelopingStatesandcommodity-dependentdevelopingcountries,yetarestartingtonarrow.Policiesandincentivemeasuresareimportantinimprovingfrontiertechnologyreadiness.Somedevelopingcountrieshavemoveduptheindexrankingorrankedhigherthanexpectedduetopoliciesandincentivesinplace.Forexample,Brazil,followingimprovementsinICTdevelopment,hasmoveduptherankingcomparedwithin2021.Othercountriesrankedhigherthanexpectedaccordingtoestimatedrankingsbasedongrossdomesticproductpercapita,inparticularthefollowing:India,whichranked67positionshigherthanestimated,reflectingachievementsrelatedtoresearchanddevelopmentandICT,aswellasthesignificantavailabilityof

2UNCTAD,2023,TechnologyandInnovationReport2023:OpeningGreenWindows-TechnologicalOpportunitiesforaLow-CarbonWorld(UnitedNationspublication,SalesNo.E.22.II.D.53,Geneva),availableat

/publication/technology

-and-innovation-report-2023.Frontier

technologiesincludethefollowing:artificialintelligence,bigdata,blockchains,drones,fifth-

generationnetworks,Internetofthings,roboticsandthree-dimensionalprinting(industry4.0

technologies);biofuels,biogasandbiomass,concentratedsolarpower,electricvehicles,green

hydrogen,solarphotovoltaicsandwindenergy(greentechnologies);andnanotechnologyandgeneediting(othertechnologies).

Note:AllwebsitesreferredtoinfootnoteswereaccessedinJune2023.

3See

/www/pdf/IHS

-Technology-5G-Economic-Impact-Study.pdfand

/wind

-can-power-over-3-3-million-jobsover-the-next-five-years/.

4UNCTAD,2021,TechnologyandInnovationReport2021:CatchingTechnologicalWaves-InnovationwithEquity(UnitedNationspublication,SalesNo.E.21.II.D.8,Geneva).

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skilledhumancapitalatrelativelylowcosts;thePhilippines,whichranked54positionshigher;andVietNam,whichranked44positionshigher.ThePhilippinesandVietNamhaveahighrankinginindustry,withsignificantforeigndirectinvestmentinhigh-technologymanufacturing.

9.Ahighrankingontheindexdoesnotnecessarilymeanacountrywillbeabletoopengreenwindowsofopportunity,asappropriatepoliciesandinvestmentsarealsorequired.Overall,theindexhighlightsareasinwhichcountriesneedtoimproveinordertobebetterplacedintheracetodevelopnewsectorsbasedonfrontiertechnologiesandtobeestablishedasleaders.

III.Technologicalopportunitiesforsustainableeconomic

diversification

10.Theconceptofgreenwindowsofopportunityservestoshowthesynergybetweeneconomicdevelopmentandclimatechangemitigation.Developingcountriesseekingtopromoteeconomicdevelopmentthroughgreenerpathwayshavethreemainroutesbywhichtoleveragegreentechnologiesforsustainableeconomicdiversification,namely,developmentanddeploymentofrenewableenergytechnologies;greeningofglobalvaluechains;anddiversificationtowardsmorecomplexandgreenersectors.

A.Developmentanddeploymentofrenewableenergytechnologies

11.Thedepthofcapacitiesinlatecomercountriestoproduce,distributeanduserenewableenergytechnologies,alongwiththespeedofdevelopmentofsuchcapacities,varybycountryandsector.Maturesectorssuchasthoseforbiomassorsolarphotovoltaicshavereadilyavailabletechnologiesandcanprovidearelativelyfasttracktoboostingeconomicactivities.However,marketcompetitioninmaturesectorstendstobegreater,imposingbarrierstonewentrantsrelatedtohigherefficiencyproductionprocesses.Inaddition,evenmaturetechnologiesneedtobeacquiredandadaptedtonationalcontexts.Incontrast,immaturesectorssuchasthoseforconcentratedsolarpowerandgreenhydrogenpresentmorespacefornewcomerstodisrupttheindustry,yetthetechnologiestendtobemoredifficulttooperate,demandinggreatercapabilitiesandlevelsofresearchanddevelopment,whichmayoftenbelackingindevelopingcountries.

12.Tobeabletoopengreenwindowsofopportunity,therefore,developingcountriesneedtosuccessfullyidentifyopportunitiesatparticularstagesofavaluechainandorienteffortstowardsdevelopingthecapabilitiesofthelabourforceandoffirms.Thereareseveralexamplesofcountriesthathavedeployedrenewablestechnologieswithdifferentlevelsofsuccessintermsofopeninggreenwindowsofopportunityandusingthemtofosterdevelopment.Allsuccessfulexamplesshowcasetheimportanceofproactivelyfosteringthedevelopmentofgreenenergytechnologiesthroughpoliciesandincentivemechanismsonboththedemandandsupplysides.Forexample,Chinahasbecomeaworldleaderinthesolarphotovoltaicsmarketbysupportingadomesticproductionandinnovationsystemthatcombinespublicandprivatebusinessactorsandbyincentivizingandregulatingresearchinstitutions,whichtookplacefollowingasetbackinexportsin2008,afterwhichleadingenterprisescollaboratedtobuildupdomesticdemand,withsupportfromnationalpoliciesandthecentralbank,aswellas,atalaterdate,collaborationbetweenfiveState-ownedenterprisesinattractinginvestment,projectmanagement,integratedconstruction,researchanddevelopment,training,hardwaremaintenanceandthesettingofindustrystandards.5

13.Countriesareinabetterpositiontoopengreenwindowsofopportunitywhentherearestrongpreconditionsintermsofnationalcapabilitiesandinfrastructurerelatedtothetargetedgreensector.However,policyresponsesarestillrequiredinordertoexploitsuchpreconditions,toopengreenwindowsofopportunity.Policymeasurescanalsoaffectpreconditions,thatis,weakpreconditionsdonotnecessarilymeanthatopeninggreen

5See

/nzzt/135/

.

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windowsofopportunitywillnotbepossible.Consideringthedifferentcombinationsbetweenthestrengthsofpreconditionsandresponses,nationalexperiencescanbegroupedintofourscenarios(table1).

Table1

Fourgreenwindowscenarios

Responses

Preconditions

Strong

Weak

Strong

Scenario1

Openwindows

Brazil:Bioethanol

Chile:Greenhydrogen(potentially)

China:Biomass,concentratedsolarpower,solarphotovoltaics

Scenario2

Windowstobeopened

Bangladesh:Biogas

China:Wind

India:Solarphotovoltaics

Morocco:Concentratedsolarpower

Weak

Scenario3

Windowswithinreach

Namibia:Greenhydrogen

ThailandandVietNam:Biomass

Scenario4

Windowsinthedistance

Kenya:Wind

MexicoandPakistan:Bioenergy

Source:UNCTAD,2023.

14.Thebestscenariowithregardtoopeninggreenwindowsofopportunityisoneinwhichstrongpreconditionsarecombinedwithstrongresponses.Forexample,inBrazil,thebioethanolsectorreceivedsupportfrompolicyframeworksandgovernmentalmeasuresincentivizinginvestmentthroughprogrammessuchasaclimatefund.6Inthesecondscenario,therearestrongpreconditionsbutinsufficientpolicyresponsestranslatingthemintoopportunities.Forexample,inIndia,greatereffortsintraining,researchanddevelopmentandpromotinglinkagestorelevantstagesofvaluechainscouldhelpboostthecompetitivenessofthesolarphotovoltaicssector.7Inthethirdscenario,notwithstandingweakpreconditions,proactivemeasuresarebeingtakentobuildcapacityandopengreenwindowsofopportunity.Forexample,inVietNam,effortsarebeingmadetodevelopadynamicsectoralsysteminthebiomassindustry.8Inthefourthscenario,thereislimitedpotentialforgreenwindowsduetoweakpreconditionsandinadequateresponses.Forexample,inMexico,thereisalackofcapabilitiestoupgradebioenergytechnology.9

15.Greenwindowsofopportunityareparticulartoeachtechnology.Inidentifyingpossibleopportunities,Governmentsshouldthereforetakeintoconsiderationtechnologicalcharacteristics,suchasmaturityandtradability.

16.Technologiesarematurewhentheyareatastageofcompletedevelopment,withestablisheddesignsandthenecessaryregulations,marketandtechnicalstandards,infrastructureandmaintenancenetworks,aswellasuserbehaviours.10Immaturesectorsofferopportunitiesbutmightbedifficulttooperateinsincetheyrequiregreaterinitialinvestmentinresearchanddevelopmentthatisoftenonlyavailableincountriesequippedwiththenecessaryinfrastructure,technologyandlabourandfinancialresourcesrequiredtosupportextensiveresearchanddevelopmentactivities.Maturetechnologiestendtobelessdemandingintermsofresearchanddevelopment,yetofteninvolvehigherlevelsofcompetition,requiringstrongandefficientproductionprocesses.

6FurtadoAT,ScandiffioMIGandCortezLAB,2011,TheBraziliansugarcaneinnovationsystem,EnergyPolicy,39(1):156-166.

7LandiniF,LemaRandMalerbaF,2020,Demand-ledcatch-up:Ahistory-friendlymodelof

latecomerdevelopmentintheglobalgreeneconomy,IndustrialandCorporateChange,29(5):1297-1318.

8See

ernational

-/PROJECT1387-1.

9Ordo?ez-FríasEJ,Azamar-BarriosJA,Mata-ZayasE,Silván-HernándezOandPampillón-GonzálezL,2020,Bioenergypotentialandtechnicalfeasibilityassessmentofresiduesfromoilpalm

processing:AcasestudyofJalapa,Tabasco,Mexico,BiomassandBioenergy,142.

10GeelsFW,2002,Technologicaltransitionsasevolutionaryreconfigurationprocesses:Amulti-levelperspectiveandacasestudy,ResearchPolicy,31(8-9):1257-1274.

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17.Tradabilityisalsoanimportantfactor,sinceitaffectstheprotectionofthedomesticmarketandlearningmodes.Sectorswithahighleveloftradabilitymayneedahigherdegreeofmarketprotectioninitially,alongwithdesignandimplementationstrategiestoboostdemand.11Inaddition,takingadvantageofahighleveloftradabilityincapitalequipmentrequiresastrongproductioncapacity.However,alowleveloftradabilityoffersadegreeofnaturalprotectioninthedomesticmarket,andlearningcouldinitiallybefacilitatedthroughforeigndirectinvestment.Countriescantakeadvantageoftechnologieswithalowleveloftradabilityandmaturityifthenecessaryresearchanddevelopmentcapabilitiesareinplace,aswellasthecapacitytosupplycomponents.

18.Toopengreenwindowsofopportunityandseizethebenefits,Governmentsfirstneedtobeabletoidentifyopportunitiesandfocusontargetedtechnologies.Differentpolicydomainsthereforeneedtobealignedinordertodeveloprenewableenergysectorsandatthesametimestimulateindustrialdevelopment.Forexample,governmentprocurementprogrammesforrenewableenergycantakeintoconsiderationlocalcontentrequirementsaimedatbuildinglocalproductionandinnovationcapacity.Needswithregardtoeachtechnologyshouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhendefiningsupport.Inaddition,nascentindustriesrequiregreatersupportregardingexperimentation.Countriesthataimtodevelopimmaturetechnologiesshouldthereforeestablishprogrammestobuildknowledgeandexperience.Forexample,inChile,theNationalResearchandDevelopmentAgencyhasestablishedseveralgreenhydrogenpilotprojectswiththesupportofinternationalinvestors.

19.Inordertostimulatethedevelopmentofgreensectorsandachievethedesiredresults,policymakersneedtoemployapolicymixthatisadequatetoparticularcontexts,adaptingselectedinstrumentstolocalcircumstances,sincesimilarprogrammesmayleadtodifferentoutcomes.Forexample,inMexicoandSouthAfrica,auctionsystemsareinplaceforacquiringenergy;Mexicohasprioritizedlow-costdeploymentandSouthAfricahasincludedrequirementswithregardtolocalcontentandsocialconsiderationsintheevaluationofwinningbids,toestablishadomesticindustryandpromotesocialdevelopment.12Inaddition,itisnecessarytoassessthecurrentstateofdomesticcapabilitiesandsectoralinnovationsystems.Countriesneedtobuildproductiveandinnovation-relatedskills;enhancehumancapitalandaccesstoanddiffusionofknowledge;andinvestindomesticresearchanddevelopmentthroughbothpublicandprivateinvestments.

20.Ensuringtheavailabilityoffundingcanbechallenging.Governmentsneedtoprovidesupportmechanismswhilebuildingcapabilities,anddevelopmentprogrammesrequireinvestmentsfromboththepublicandprivatesectors.Itisthereforeessentialtopromoteaccesstovariedfundingresources,includingdevelopmentbanks,publicinvestmentsandexternalfunds.

B.Greeningofglobalvaluechains

21.Inmostcountries,movingtomorecomplexandgreenerproductiondependsontradeandplacementinglobalvaluechains,whichhavebeenatthecentreoftheglobaleconomicframeworksincethe1990s.Manydevelopingcountrieshaveutilizedthemtoleveragestrengthsandexpertiseinparticulartasks.However,toreapthefullbenefitsofglobalvaluechains,countriesneedtoupgradeproductiontomoresophisticatedmanufacturingandservicesalongachain.Countriescandiversifyeconomiesandupgradeproductionthroughparticipationinglobalvaluechainsbytakingadvantageofthepushforgreatersustainability.Consumerpreferencesareshiftingtowardsproductsandprocesseswithsmallercarbonfootprintsandmoreecofriendlylifecycles.13Simultaneously,thereareopportunitiesforfirmstonotonlymeetconsumerdemandbutalsoensuresavingsby

11Landinietal,2020.

12MatsuoTandSchmidtTS,2019,Managingtrade-offsingreenindustrialpolicies:Theroleofrenewableenergypolicydesign,WorldDevelopment,122:11-26.

13GallagherJ,BasuB,BrowneM,KennaA,McCormackS,PillaFandStylesD,2019,Adapting

stand-alonerenewableenergytechnologiesforthecirculareconomythroughecodesignandrecycling,JournalofIndustrialEcology,23(1):133-140.

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implementingmoreefficientmanufacturingpracticesandoptimizingmaterialutilization.Suchchangesaretransmittedalongvaluechainsthroughnewdesigns,standardsandspecifications.Firmscanensurethegreeningofglobalvaluechainsthroughthefollowingtwoapproaches:produceinputsforgreenproduction,suchassolarphotovoltaicpanelsandwindturbines;andensurethegreeningoftraditionalmanufacturingindustries,suchasfood,garmentsandtextiles,prevalentinlow-incomeandmiddle-incomecountries.

22.Theinitiativetoensurethegreeningofglobalvaluechainsanditsimplementationdependsonthetypeofgovernance,thatis,thenatureoftherelationshipbetweenlinksinavaluechain.Therearefivetypesofglobalvaluechaingovernanceinvolvingdifferentmonitoringdegreesandcoordinationmodes,namely,captive,hierarchy,market,modularandrelational;forexample,undercaptivegovernance,thereisahighlevelofmonitoringandcontrolexertedbyleadingfirms,andsmallersuppliershaveahighlevelofdependenceonlargerbuyers,makingitdifficultforsmallersupplierstoswitchbetweenbuyers.Insuchcases,leadingfirmsmightbearthecostsofupgradingsystemproviders,giventhegainsrelatedtocostsavingsorreputationalreasons.14

23.Thereareotherpotentialissuesintheprocessofgreeningglobalvaluechains.Leadingfirmsmayshiftthecostsofsustainabilitycomplianceontosuppliers,asobserved,forexample,inthewineandcoffeesectors,leadingtoa“suppliersqueeze”.15Inaddition,greaterdemandmayraisebarriersforentryandtherebydetersmallerproducersanddeepenimbalancesofpowerbetweenfirmsintheGlobalNorthandGlobalSouth.Greaterdemandforsustainabilityfrombuyers,generallyfromtheGlobalNorth,shouldbeaccompaniedbygreatersupporttosuppliers,oftenfromtheGlobalSouth.Forexample,theenvironmentalupgradingofglobalvaluechainsofoliveoilfromTunisiaremainslimited,sincetherehasbeenalackoffinancialandtechnicalassistancefrombuyers.16

24.Theapplicationofvoluntarysustainabilitystandardscanbeagoodpracticeinupgradingglobalvaluechains.Suchstandardsoutlinerequirementsforproducers,traders,manufacturers,retai