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附錄一在逆向工程中對適合曲線的數(shù)據(jù)點云的預(yù)處理逆向工程已經(jīng)成為一種從實物通過CMM測量的數(shù)據(jù)點重建CAD模型的重要工具.在逆向工程中首要的問題是:測量到的點具有不規(guī)律形式和不對等分布,很難用B-spline曲線擬合。這篇論文中介紹了一種在逆向工程中用預(yù)先處理數(shù)據(jù)點來擬合曲線的方法。適合B-spline形式之前來處理先前測量得到的數(shù)據(jù)點的方法已經(jīng)得到了發(fā)展。通過這種方法產(chǎn)生的新的數(shù)據(jù)點形式,適合建立光滑精確B-spline曲線的要求。這種方法的整個的步驟包括:切片、弧度分析、分割、回歸、和再生。在逆向工程中這種方法被實施和用于實踐。重建的結(jié)果證實了此方法與目前流行的商業(yè)CAD系統(tǒng)的結(jié)合力。關(guān)鍵字:擬合曲線;預(yù)先處理數(shù)據(jù)點。逆向工程1.介紹隨著計算機(jī)硬件的軟件技術(shù)的發(fā)展,對促進(jìn)產(chǎn)品發(fā)展的計算機(jī)輔助技術(shù)觀念在工業(yè)領(lǐng)域已被廣泛地接受通過新的CAD技術(shù)的發(fā)展,設(shè)計和制造之間的間隙已逐漸變得越來越密切。在正常的自動化制造環(huán)境下操作順序經(jīng)常是通過用CAD系統(tǒng)創(chuàng)建的幾何模型的產(chǎn)品設(shè)計開始,在幾何模型的基礎(chǔ)上,產(chǎn)生機(jī)器制造指令將原材料轉(zhuǎn)化成最終產(chǎn)品然后結(jié)束。由于意識到現(xiàn)代計算機(jī)輔助技術(shù)在產(chǎn)品發(fā)展和制造中的優(yōu)勢,因此在CAD系統(tǒng)著重要求創(chuàng)建物體的幾何模型。然而,在創(chuàng)建CAD模型之前,產(chǎn)品發(fā)展的物理模型和樣本先被產(chǎn)生出來。1.例如,在設(shè)計汽車主體控制面板時,設(shè)計者和藝術(shù)家關(guān)于控制板的構(gòu)想到底是在什么樣的基礎(chǔ)上制造黏土模型。沒有最初的草圖,確切的記錄模型在哪里?在制造中由于設(shè)計的改變,CAD模型不得不重新修改的部分哪里在所有這些情形中。物理模型或樣本的建立是為了創(chuàng)建和建立CAD模型。與這些常規(guī)的制造順序相反,典型的逆向工程從測量現(xiàn)存的物理實體開始,這樣推斷出來的CAD模型可以更好的利用CAD技術(shù)的優(yōu)勢。逆向工程經(jīng)常可以細(xì)分為3個階段:電子數(shù)據(jù)獲取,數(shù)據(jù)分割,和用CAD模型構(gòu)建一個物理模型。樣本起先用CMM或激光掃描儀測量以得到以三維坐標(biāo)形式存在的幾何圖案的信息。然后,為了更進(jìn)一步的處理,測量結(jié)果被分割成拓?fù)錉?。就重建模型來說,每個小區(qū)域就代表一個簡單的可以用數(shù)學(xué)方面知識描繪其簡單外表的幾何圖案特征OCAD模型重建區(qū)域的表面是把這些表面連接成完整的可以描述被測量部分或樣本的模型。然而,在實際測量方案中,存在物理樣本或模型的幾何圖案信息不能被完全測量和準(zhǔn)確重建一個好的CAD模型的情況。一些表面測量的數(shù)據(jù)可能是不規(guī)律的,還有一些測量誤差或者表面是不要求的。如圖1所示,測量物體的主要表面可能有這些特征:由于制造的不精確引起的凹坑,凸起,或噪聲點,因此,CMM探針不能獲取一套完全的數(shù)據(jù)點來重建整個物體的表面。在逆向工程中,現(xiàn)存實體的測量,可以通過接觸式測量或非接觸式測量技術(shù)來實現(xiàn)。然而無論用什么技術(shù),這里都有一系列獲取數(shù)據(jù)的實際問題,例如,噪聲和不完全數(shù)據(jù)。如果沒有簡單的程序去校對這些數(shù)據(jù)點。這些問題將引起令人不期望的CAD模型的重建問題。為了正確和滿意的重建CAD模型,這篇論文中介紹了一種先處理數(shù)據(jù)點去擬合曲線的有用和行之有效的方法,用這種方法,數(shù)據(jù)點被按指定的形式重新生成,并適合指定擬合B-spline曲線的形式,而沒有先前提到的問題。在擬合了所有曲線之后,模型的表面才可能完全和曲線結(jié)合起來。2.B-spline曲線理論通過含參數(shù)的方程,絕大多數(shù)外觀基礎(chǔ)上的CAD系統(tǒng)都表達(dá)了構(gòu)造模型的要求,如Bezier曲線或B-spline曲線形式,最長用的是B-spline形式,在目前商業(yè)系統(tǒng)中,B-spline曲線是標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的代表自由曲線和外表的曲線。B-spline曲線和Bezier曲線有許多共同的優(yōu)勢。用可預(yù)測的普通方法來移動控制點影響曲線形狀,使它們兩者成了構(gòu)建曲面較好的曲線形式。這兩種不同類型的曲線都具有控制點少,獨立的對稱軸和綜合價值。都表現(xiàn)出了凸凹性。然而,在局部的控制曲線形狀這方面,可能B-spline曲線表現(xiàn)出的優(yōu)勢超過了Bezier技術(shù)。如增加控制點而沒有增加曲線的度數(shù)的能力??紤]到現(xiàn)實世界中應(yīng)用的要求,在這篇論文中B-spline技術(shù)被用來代表曲線和曲面。一條B-spline曲線設(shè)定了連接n+1個控點。通過下面的列子給出了一條含參數(shù)的B-spline曲線:對于B-spline曲線,這些變量參數(shù)的度數(shù)經(jīng)常通過參數(shù)K控制,它對應(yīng)控制點的數(shù)量。一條B-spline曲線基本功能通過下面的表式來定義:鞏巧=工用皿W〔°三*三1) ⑴r=0R=揑制點“十1二揑制點數(shù)N.;i)= B-#line基本函數(shù)u=參數(shù)3.擬合如果從現(xiàn)存的數(shù)據(jù)中測量一些數(shù)據(jù)點,擬合曲線不許經(jīng)過數(shù)據(jù)點。最新的擬合技術(shù),用接近的算法規(guī)則,在迭代方法的基礎(chǔ)上,一系列數(shù)據(jù)點形成了B-spline曲線。假如一系列數(shù)據(jù)點,在一條不知道參數(shù)值的曲線P中,K從1到N決定一個準(zhǔn)確加入位置或者是好的擬合曲線P是必要的。為了解決這個問題,每個數(shù)據(jù)點的參數(shù)值必須被假定出來。矢量的節(jié)點和曲0其他的W尸上(Q+T7葺T_⑻

l{i-Fr_獨 叫_A]_l{i~:證ffl騎-巧=工工冷wM%(v) ?三21)(書J'=o>:■?=P3=Y於%(唏(^=0.1町 ⑸1=0S\Qj-Q^也=0.it;= ⑹工SF線的度數(shù)也是要求的。在實際應(yīng)用中度數(shù)一般都是3,參數(shù)值的確定可以通過下面的方法:

^={0.0..…"旳-…-K-1.1-…-1}戸=—V迢t=1--?…-r) ⑺*與Fig.2.Curvefittingwithunequaldistributionofdatapoints.4?適合B-Spline曲線的數(shù)據(jù)要求為了生成一條光滑準(zhǔn)確的B-Spline曲線,還要求一系列數(shù)據(jù)點能適合呈現(xiàn)出的B-Spline形式的曲線特征。首先,數(shù)據(jù)必須有較好的排列順序。當(dāng)應(yīng)用程序為了使一系列數(shù)據(jù)點能適合-Spline曲線,這些數(shù)據(jù)點必須以指定的順序讀入。如果數(shù)據(jù)點不是按順序的,這將引起未預(yù)期的曲線或一條失去B-Spline曲線形狀控制的曲線。其次,均勻分布數(shù)據(jù)點對擬合曲線來說是比較好的。在實際的測量中,一些因素如機(jī)器的顫抖,系統(tǒng)中的噪音,和被測量物體表面的粗糙,這都將影響測量的結(jié)果。所有這些現(xiàn)象都將引起在經(jīng)過問題點的曲線的局部顫抖。因此,對于產(chǎn)生一個高質(zhì)量的B-Spline曲線,光滑有序的點云數(shù)據(jù)是必須的。獲得均勻分布的數(shù)據(jù)點,可以提高擬合B-Spline曲線參數(shù)的結(jié)果。就象在方程式(9)中數(shù)學(xué)方面所展示的那樣,通過和數(shù)據(jù)點分布一致的參數(shù)UI決定的基本函數(shù)和數(shù)據(jù)點,確定了控制點。如果數(shù)據(jù)是不均勻的,這些控點也會分布不均勻還將引起擬合曲線的不平滑。正如上面所提及到的,在實際案例測量中Fig.3.Curvefittingwithequaldistributionofdatapoints.Fig.4.Theprocedureofdatapointspre-processing.一個物體模型經(jīng)常有一些諸如空洞,內(nèi)凹和小范圍的切片,這些都將阻止CMM探針獲得均勻分布的數(shù)據(jù)點。如果一條曲線不是用均勻分布的數(shù)據(jù)點擬合重建的,就像圖2中所示,產(chǎn)生的曲線會和真實測量物體的形狀不符。圖3說明了更光滑和更準(zhǔn)確的重建可以通過一系列均勻分布的空間數(shù)據(jù)點獲得,數(shù)據(jù)點預(yù)處理。5預(yù)先處理的數(shù)據(jù)點正如上面所述,為了達(dá)到使一系列數(shù)據(jù)點適合B-spline曲線的要求,在擬合曲線之前,對數(shù)據(jù)點進(jìn)行預(yù)處理是非常重要和必須的。在下面的描述中,將介紹有種對擬合曲線有用而且有效的的數(shù)據(jù)預(yù)處理辦法,這種辦法的構(gòu)想是:用絕對的或明確的形式將一系列測量結(jié)果設(shè)為不含參數(shù)的方程式,這些方程式必須滿足曲率的連續(xù)性,對于一個飛機(jī)模型,一個明確的不含參數(shù)方程式的一般形式:圖示說明,一個總的逆向工程中預(yù)處理數(shù)據(jù)點的程序。數(shù)據(jù)點的移動第一步是刪除不需要和不規(guī)則的數(shù)據(jù)點。通過CMM從物理模型和現(xiàn)存模型測量的原始數(shù)據(jù)點是離散形式的,當(dāng)這些測量的點用圖表示出來時,明顯偏離原始曲線的數(shù)據(jù)點,可通過設(shè)計者的一般處理和可見的搜尋能被有選擇的剔除掉。此外,為進(jìn)一步處理清晰的不連續(xù)的在形狀上急轉(zhuǎn)變化的點,可以很容易的把他們分開。在逆向工程中,從測量點中產(chǎn)生一個CAD模型已經(jīng)發(fā)展了很多種途徑。一個復(fù)雜的模型經(jīng)常要通過將完整的模型細(xì)分成單獨的簡單模型來構(gòu)建。在一個CAD系統(tǒng)中,每一個單獨的表面定義了一個簡單的特性。一個完整的的CAD模型就可以通過更進(jìn)一步的修整,融合,整合獲得,或者用其他的表面處理工具。當(dāng)一個設(shè)計者把從存在的物體中測量的一系列數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行細(xì)分時,要求通過定義單獨的簡單表面來重新構(gòu)建一個完整的模型。因此,數(shù)據(jù)點的曲率分析被用來將細(xì)分的的數(shù)據(jù)點歸成單獨的小類。為了提煉出再建的CAD模型,在這一步中,依據(jù)曲率推算和數(shù)據(jù)點分析的結(jié)果,數(shù)據(jù)點被歸為不同的類,如一個2維作標(biāo)的曲線,曲線被定義如下:如果數(shù)據(jù)用離散的形式表示出來,同一架飛機(jī)中任何三個不連續(xù)的點,這三

點形成一平面和一個中心a-b-c(X1+X2)(X2-X1)(Y3-Y2)

b=(X2+X3)(X3-X2)(Y2-Y1)

c=(Y1-Y3)(Y2-Y1)(Y3-Y2)

d=2[(X2-X1)(Y3-Y2)-(X3-X2)(Y2-Y1)]rig.呦片的曲率改變TOC\o"1-5"\h\ze= (Y1 + Y2) (Y2 — Yl) (X3 — X2)f= (Y2 + Y3) (Y3 - Y2) (X2 - X1)g= (Xl - X3) (X2 - Xl) (X3 - X2)和,(X2,Y2)的曲率K可以定義為:'=~'=<((X0-X2)2+(YO-Y2)2) '圖6說明了一個例子,組成數(shù)據(jù)點的飛機(jī)輪廓的曲度用先前方法推算,數(shù)據(jù)點從0到0.333之間的變化決定了曲線的曲度,就像圖7中所示。這表明數(shù)據(jù)點中有一些半徑為30的點。然而,這些數(shù)據(jù)可以從原始數(shù)據(jù)中分離出來而形成一個簡單的特性。通過弧度分析,這一組數(shù)據(jù)點被分成了幾類。從外觀上急劇變化的原始數(shù)據(jù)的點被分成了這一組組數(shù)據(jù)。在分割完以后,單獨的數(shù)據(jù)類被單獨地回歸為明確的不含參數(shù)的方程式。然而一個好的有序的,接近空間的數(shù)據(jù)點可以從回歸方程式中得出。從而得到合適的擬合曲線。新的數(shù)據(jù)點對于擬合簡單的單獨的沒有內(nèi)部約束的B-spline曲線是有效的。這些能被用于更進(jìn)一步的編輯和修改,如修飾和伸展。通過聯(lián)合單獨曲線就可以構(gòu)建出外觀,設(shè)計者不遺余力地努力實現(xiàn)一個完整的CAD模型,從而形成設(shè)計意圖。此外,通過被測量數(shù)據(jù)和回歸方程式的回歸性操作,一些回歸性的錯誤也被介紹出來,在下面的列子中,來討論回歸方程式的順序,因為它顯示出了和回歸性錯誤有密切聯(lián)系。假設(shè)一系列現(xiàn)存的數(shù)據(jù)點,用不同順序回歸。圖8顯示說明了通過r.m.s?方法推算的回歸方程式和回歸性錯誤之間的關(guān)系。這數(shù)字顯示了方程式順序增加會引起r.m.s?錯誤的減少。然而,在多數(shù)實例中,當(dāng)用第5個回歸方程式的時候,第5項的系數(shù)變成零第4項方程式的錯誤和第5項的錯誤是一樣的了。這就意味著設(shè)計者僅僅回歸了第4個方程式的數(shù)據(jù)點。在實際應(yīng)用中,第4個方程式已經(jīng)滿足了工業(yè)應(yīng)用中的CAD模型再建對曲

度來連續(xù)的要求。6.應(yīng)用為了提高先前提到的用預(yù)先處理過的數(shù)據(jù)擬合曲線的方法的有效性和靈活性。一個應(yīng)用的列子是先面圖表中的步驟,一個MitutoyoBN706一致的測量儀器配合一個RenishawPH9接觸式探針和SAS統(tǒng)計軟件是常用來系統(tǒng)實施的工具,通過標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的CMM探針和測量軟件,部分的表面測量就可以實現(xiàn)為了確定先前的方法在實際應(yīng)用中的有用性,商用的CAD系統(tǒng)和Pro/Engineer,經(jīng)常結(jié)合使用。Fig.10.執(zhí)行系統(tǒng)組成的配置.Fig.11.執(zhí)行的物理模型.在工具中,系統(tǒng)的各部分整體結(jié)構(gòu)如圖10所示。首先經(jīng)過篩選描述的曲線形狀應(yīng)用模型可以用CMM測量出來。對于典型的對稱幾何物理實體,如圖11所示,被在應(yīng)用的例子中使用,一個對稱實體的CAD模型可以很容易的被通過對稱線的對稱性映射出來。因此,一些可選的具有對稱性的曲線僅僅要求一半曲線的

數(shù)據(jù),然后另一半可以映射出來從而產(chǎn)生一條完整的曲線,測量結(jié)果如圖12所示當(dāng)測量的數(shù)據(jù)十分完整時,單個描述不同可選曲線的數(shù)據(jù)點被單獨的處理。在這個應(yīng)用案列中,在這條曲線上獲取144個點,作為一個預(yù)先處理數(shù)據(jù)點的例子來說明這條中間可選擇曲線的加工處理,如圖13(a).所示在數(shù)據(jù)分割步驟中,這些明顯從數(shù)據(jù)點分類中脫離出來的不規(guī)則的點和明確的不連續(xù)的點被直接在預(yù)處理過程中剔除掉。分割后,殘留的數(shù)據(jù)點包括132個點,如圖13(b)所示。Fig.12.測量結(jié)果.曲率0.230.200.150.05D.001^0小牡甘初始點決定的代表性曲線的主要曲率變化桿

Fig.15.通過中間點的方法平滑曲線.卉圧數(shù)揭點墳部曲線擬舍頂部曲線過濾數(shù)據(jù)點(132paints).砌甬曲魏曲卉圧數(shù)揭點墳部曲線擬舍頂部曲線過濾數(shù)據(jù)點(132paints).砌甬曲魏曲銭頂部按曲鐵拓S割固耳曲鉄Fig.13.代表曲線預(yù)處理重要數(shù)據(jù)點的步驟為了分割數(shù)據(jù)點,描述曲線殘留數(shù)據(jù)點的曲度可以被推算和在圖14中繪制出來。由于物理實體工具表面還沒有定義,通過這些測量點決定的曲度可能極大的偏離原始曲線,以至很難達(dá)到曲線分割。為了得到明確的弧度變化,在弧度推算之前被測量的數(shù)據(jù)點必須是通過中線得到的平滑的數(shù)據(jù)點。用新的數(shù)據(jù)點推算的曲度結(jié)果,如圖16所示,或許可以把曲線分割的很平滑,在考慮的物體表面重建計劃和曲度發(fā)生了明顯變化。這些點被分割成了顯示個別曲線特征的小組。包括曲線頂部,側(cè)面和切面。如圖13(c)所示在分割完以后,個別的數(shù)據(jù)組被單獨的回歸到明確的不含參數(shù)的方程式中。通過大致的分割,為了消除回歸性錯誤,可以去掉剛開始的幾個點和回歸前數(shù)據(jù)點組結(jié)尾的每個點。例如,在曲線頂部分割的點應(yīng)該是第28到第128之間的點。在方程式中,回歸從第31到第115個點之間的數(shù)據(jù)點,可得到如下式子。Z二25.6343十0.975X-0.0205X2十0.00019X3(12)-6.50:<IO"7X"(12)曲線頂部的數(shù)據(jù)點可以被用一個好的有序的預(yù)先決定的空間和均勻分布的曲線回歸。如圖13(d).所示,通過CMM測量的預(yù)先處理的原始數(shù)據(jù)點的結(jié)果,允許適合回歸數(shù)據(jù)點的光滑曲線。在曲線上曲度趨于0的點被叫做節(jié)點。在這些情形中,可以被用來重建復(fù)雜雕刻品的曲線特征,在這里它不僅僅是一個結(jié)束點了。處理數(shù)據(jù)點來擬合分割成不同結(jié)束點的曲線。為產(chǎn)生曲線外型,一個高的有序的回歸方程式可以被用來回歸數(shù)據(jù)點。在CAD應(yīng)用中,在曲線基礎(chǔ)上構(gòu)建模型的技術(shù)已廣泛應(yīng)用于工業(yè)。沿著預(yù)先期望的方向,物體通常被分成幾個可選部分。通過可選的數(shù)據(jù)點,單個特性的空間曲線首先適合曲線。通過融合用不同種類的表面,重新構(gòu)建安排,如規(guī)則表面,鏤空表面和模糊的表面,這樣不同的表面可以被用期望的形狀重新構(gòu)建出來。然后一個復(fù)雜的合成表面模型就可以通過連接這些表面來構(gòu)建出來。當(dāng)整個預(yù)先處理數(shù)據(jù)過程完成后,一個單獨的再生數(shù)據(jù)就可以通過IGES形式轉(zhuǎn)移到商用CAD系統(tǒng)中。通過擬合不同的在B-spline形式展現(xiàn)出來的數(shù)據(jù)點,被測量物體所有曲線特征可以被完整的創(chuàng)造出來。如圖Fig.13(e,f).所示,曲線特征不同,表面就可以用期望的形狀重新構(gòu)建出來。最后,完整的CAD模型,通過聯(lián)合不同表面就可以達(dá)到進(jìn)一步的設(shè)計或操作或完成?!?P婷■-P婷曲面苴理嘔廣的址理擬合草獨的曲線完成的[Atm型0璉立詳細(xì)特征7.結(jié)論對于開發(fā)新產(chǎn)品,構(gòu)建幾何模型已經(jīng)是一個廣泛應(yīng)用于工業(yè)的技術(shù)。逆向工程成了一個從測量到實體數(shù)據(jù)重建CAD模型的重要工具。在逆向工程技術(shù)中,一個主要的難題是:使不均勻分布的非常規(guī)的數(shù)據(jù)點適合B-spline曲線。在這篇論文中描述了在逆向工程中對于適合去預(yù)先處理數(shù)據(jù)點的過程,在擬合曲線之前處理從實體得到的數(shù)據(jù)。先前提議的方法已經(jīng)得到了發(fā)展,然后,適合擬合光滑漂亮的B-spline曲線所要求的新數(shù)據(jù)被產(chǎn)生出來,這種方法的整個過程包括:切片,曲度分析,分割,回歸和再生。這種方法在逆向工程中是實際應(yīng)用的工具。也是一種連接現(xiàn)行的重建物理實體幾何模型的商用CAD系統(tǒng)的有效工具

逆向工程更廣泛的解釋還可能包括:在某中程度上推斷原始設(shè)計意圖。一個逆向工程構(gòu)思體系,不僅僅是重建原始物體的完整的幾何模型,而是還要獲取原始設(shè)計意圖。通過使用上面建議的方法,為了產(chǎn)生單獨特征曲線來重新構(gòu)建一個完整的原始物體的CAD模型,設(shè)計者可能對數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行重新編組來達(dá)到原始設(shè)計意圖。IntJAdvManufTcchnol(2000)16:635-642 TheinitmatwJournalof?2000Springcr-VcrlagLondonLimitedmanufacturingTechnologyThePre-ProcessingofDataPointsforCurveFittinginReverseEngineeringMing-ChihHuangandChing-ChihTaiDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,TatungUniversity,Taipci.TaiwanReverseengineeringhasbecomeanitnporlanlloo!forCADmodelconstructionfromthedatapoinis,measuredbyacoordinaterneasuringmachine(CMM),ofanexistingpart.AmajorprobleminreverseengineeringisfhafthemeasuredpointshavinganirregularformalandunequaldisitibtilionaredifficulttofitinfoaB-splinecinveorsurfoce.Thepaperpresentsamethodforpre-processingdatapointsforcurvefittinginreverseengineering.TheproposedmethodhasbeendevelopedtoprocessIhemeasureddalapointsbeforefillinginIoaB-splineform.ThefornititofthenewdatapointsiegenemtedbytheproposedmethodissuitablefortherequirementsforfittingintoasmoothB-splinecurvewithagoodshape.TheenlireprocedureofthismethodinvoIvesfiheling,curvatureanalysis,segmentation,regressing,andregenemtingsteps.Themethodisimplemeritedandusedforapracticalapplicationinreverseengineering.Theresutloffherecons!ructionproveslheviabilityoftheproposedmethodforinfegrafionwithcurrentcommercialCADsystems.Keywords:Curvefitting;Prc-proccssingofdatapoints;Reverseengineering1?IntroductionWiththeprogressinthedevelopmentofcomputerhardwarcandsoftwaretechnology,theconceptofcomputer-aidedtechnology*forproductdevelopmenthasbecomemorewidelyacceptedbyindustry.ThegapbetweendesignandmanufacturingisnowbeinggraduallynarrowedthroughthedevelopmentofnewCADtechnology.Inanormalautomatedmanufacturingenvironment,theoperationsequenceusuallystartsfromproductdesignviageometricmodelscreatedinCADsystems,andendswiththegenerationofmachininginstructionsrequiredtoconvertrawmaterialintoafinishedproduct,basedonthegeometricmodel.Torealisetheadvantagesofmoderncom-Conesptnuleneeandoffprintrequeststo:Ming-ChihHuang,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,TatungUniversity,40ChiingshanNRoad,3rdSection,Taipci104,Taiwan.E-mail:mindyfemghcr.ttit.cdu.twputer-aidedtechnologyintheproductdevelopmentandmanufacturingprocess,ageometricmodeloftheparttobecreatedintheCADsystemisrequired.However,therearcsomesituationsinproductdevelopmentinwhichaphysicalmodelorsampleisproduccdbeforecreatingtheCADmodel:Whereaclaymodel,forexample,indesigningautomobilebodypanels,ismadebythedesignerorartistbasedonconceptualsketchesofwhatthepanelshouldlooklike.Whereasampleexistswithouttheoriginaldrawingordocumcntationdefinition*WheretheCADmodelrepresentingtheparthastoberevisedowingtodesignchangeduringmanufacturing.Inallofthesesituations,thephysicalmodelorsamplemustbereverseengineeredtocreateorrefinetheCADmodel.IncontrastIothisconventionalmanufacturingsequence,reverseengineeringtypicallystartswithmeasuringanexistingphysicalobjectsothataCADmodelcanbededucedinordertoexploittheadvantagesofCADtechnologies.Theprocessofreverseengineeringcanusuallybesubdividedintothreestages,i.c.datacapture,datasegmentationandCADmodellingand/orupdating[1,2].Aphysicalmock-uporprototypeisfirstmeasuredbyacoordinatemeasuringmachineoralaserscannertoacquircthegeometricinformationintheformof3Dpoints.Themeasuredresultsarcthensegmentedintotopologicalregionsforfurtherprocessing.Eachregionrepresentsasinglegeometricfeaturethatcanberepresentedmathematicallybyasimplcsurfaceintheeaseofmodelreconstruction.CADmodellingreconstructsthesurfaceofaregionandcombinesthesesurfacesintoacompletemodelrepresentingthemeasuredpartorprototype[3J.Inpracticalmeasuringeases,however,therearcmanysituationswherethegeometricinformationofaphysicalprototypeorsamplecannotbemeasuredcompletelyandaccuratelytoreconstructagoodCADmodel.Somedatapointsofthemeasuredsurfacemaybeirregular,havemeasurementerrors,orcannotbeacquired.AsshowninFig.1,themainsurfaceofmeasuredobjectmayhavefeaturessuchasholes,islands,orroughnesscausedbymanufacturinginaccuracy,consequentlytheCMMprobecannotcapturethecompletesetofdatapointstoreconstructtheentiresurface.636M.-C.HuangandC.-C.TaiGiventheparameter636M.-C.HuangandC.-C.TaiGiventheparameterMcasurementofanexistingobjectsurfaceinreverseengiliceringcanbeachievedbyusingeithercontactprobingornoncontactsensingprobingtechniques.Whatevertechniqueisapplied,therearcmanypracticalproblemswithacquiringdatapoints,forexamples,noise,andincompletedata.Withoutextensiveprocessingtoadjustthedatapoints,theseproblemswillcausetheCADmodeltobereconstructedwithanunde-siredshape.InordertorebuildtheCADmodelcorrectlyandsatisfactorily,thispaperpresentsausefulandeffectivemethodtopre-processthedatapointsforcurvefitting.Usingtheproposedmethod,thedatapointsarcregeneratedinaspecifiedformat,whichissuitableforfittingintoacurverepresentedinB-splineformwithouttheproblemspreviouslymentioned.Afterfittingallofthecurves,thesurfacemodelcanbecompletedbyconnectingthecurves.TheTheoryofB-splineMostofthesurface-basedCADsystemsexpressshapesrequiredformodellingbyparametricequations,suchasinBezierorB-splineforms.ThemostusedistheB-splineform.B-splinesarcthestandardforrepresentingfreeformcurvesandsurfacesincurrentcommercialCADsystems.B-splinecurvesandBeziercurveshavemanyadvantagesincommon[4].Controlpointsinfluencethecurveshapeinapredictable,naturalway,makingthemgoodcandidatesforuseinaninteractiveenvironment.Bothtypesofcurvearcvariationdiminishing,axisindependent,andmultivalued,andbothexhibittheconvexhullproperty.However,itisthelocalcontrolofcurveshapewhichispossiblewithB-splinesthatgivesthetechniqueanadvantageovertheBeziertechnique,asdocstheabilitytoaddcontrolpointswithoutincreasingthedegreeofthecurve.Consideringthereal-worldapplicationsrequirement,theB-splinetechniqueisusedtorepresentcurvesandsurfacesinthisresearch.AB-splinecurveisasetofbasisfunctionswhichcombinestheeffectsofn4-1controlpoints.AparametricB-splinecurveisgivenbyft(0三"三1) (1)i=0Pt=controlpoints"+I=numberofcontrolpointsk(u)=theB-splincbasisfunctionsu=parameterForB-splinecurves,thedegreeofthesepolynomialsiscontrolledbyaparameterkandisusuallyindependentofthenumberofcontrolpoints,andtheB-splinebasisfunctionsarcdefinedbythefollowingexpression:f1if",三"三心+i10otherwiseandu-u: —ii心(“)= (“)+ (“) ⑶"出-"++I-心+iWherekcontrolsthedegree伙一1)oftheresultingpoly-nomialsinuandthusalsocontrolsthecontinuityofthecurve.AB-splinesurfaceisdefinedinasimilarwaytoatensorproductinaB-splinecurve.ItisalsopossibletodefineaB-splinesurfacehavingdifferentdegreesintheu-andv-dircc-tions:5(//,v)=S5} (“)N"(v) (0<z/<I);=Oj=OCurveFittingGivenasetofdatapointsmeasuredfromexistingobject,curvefittingisrequiredtopassthroughthedatapoints.Theleast-squaresfittingtechniqueisthemostusedalgorithmwhichaimsatapproximating,basedonaniterativemethod,asetofdatapointstoformaB-spline[5-7].GivenasetofdatapointsQk,&=0,1,2,..thatlieonanunknowncurvePforcertainparametervaluesuk,k=0,1,2,.../j;itisnecessarytodetermineanexactinterpolationorbestfittingcurve,P.Tosolvethisproblem,theparametervalues(“Jforeachofthedatapointsmustbeassumed.Theknotvectorandthedegreeofthecurvearcalsodetermined.Thedegreeinpracticalapplicationsisgenerally3(order=4).Theparametervaluescanbedeterminedbythechordlengthmethod:ftQk=PM=S仇N,.”(“J伙=0,1 (5);=oS\Qj-Qj-if心=0, (6)S\Qj-Qj-ifj-ivalues,aknotvectorthatreflectsthedistributionoftheseparametershasthefollowingform:U={0,0,...,0,P+i p+>I 1V-=-2U;(j=1,2,..Pi=jtmtn-1tmtn-1Fig.2.Curvefittingwithunequaldistributionofdatapoints.Itcanbeprovedthatthecoefficientmatrixistotallypositiveandbandedwithabandwidthoflessthanp,therefore,thelinearsystemcanbesolvedsafelybyGaussianeliminationwithoutpivoting.N“(//*)|;.*=o....?Equation(5)canbewritteninamatrixform:Q=NP (8)whereQisan(tn+I)XImatrix,Nisan(rn+1)X(”+1)matrix,andPisan(n+I)XImatrix.Sincem>n,thisequationisover-determined.Thesolutionisp*=ZNf'2Q (9)TheRequirementforFittingaSetofDataintoaB-SplineCurveInordertoproduceaB-splinecurvewitha"goodshape**,somecharacteristicsarcrequiredtofitthedatapointsetintoacurvepresentedinB-splineform.First,thedatapointsmustbeinawell-orderedsequence.WhenapplyingtheprogramtofitasetofdatapointsintoaB-splinecurve,thedatapointsmustbereadonebyoneinaspecifiedorder.Ifthedatapointsarcnotinorder,thiswillcauscanundesiredtwistoranout-of-controlshapeoftheB-splinecurve.Secondly,anevendispersionofthedatapointsisbetterforcurvefitting.Inthemeasuringprocedure,somefactors,suchasthevibrationofthemachine,thenoiseinthesystem,andtheroughnessofthesurfaceofthemeasuredobjectwillinfluencetheresultofthemeasurement.Allofthesephenomenawillcauselocalshakesinthecurvewhichpassesthroughtheproblempoints.Therefore,asmoothgradationofthelocationofthedatapointsisnecessaryforgeneratinga"highquality**B-splinecurve.HavingthedatapointsequallydistributedisimportantforimprovingtheresultofparameterisationforfittingaB-splinecurve.AsthemathematicalpresentationshowsinEq.(9),thecontrolpointsmatrix[P]isdeterminedbythebasisfunctions[N]anddatapoints[0],wherethebasisfunctions[N]arcdeterminedbytheparametersi—whicharccorrespondtothedistributionofthedatapoints.Ifthedatapointsarcdistributedunequally,thecontrolpointswillalsobedistributedunequallyandwillcausealackofsmoothnessofthefittingcurve.Asmentionedabove,inpracticalmeasuringeases,themainsurfacetlofaphysicalsampleoftenhassomefeaturessuchasholes,islands,andradiusfillets,whiehpreventtheCMMprobefromcapturingdatapointswithequaldistribution.Ifacurveisrebuiltbyfittingdatapointswithanunequaldistribution,asshowninFig.2,thegeneratedcurvemaydifferfromtherealshapeofthemeasuredobject.Figure3illustratesthatasmootherandmoreaccuratereconstructionmaybeobtainedbyfittinganequallyspacedsetofdatapoints.ThePre-ProcessingofDataPointsToachievetherequirementsforfittingasetofdatapointsintoaB-splinecurveasmentionedabove,itisveryimportantandnecessarythatthedatapointsmustbepre-processedbeforecurvefitting.Inthefollowingdescription,ausefulandeffectivemethodforpre-processingthedatapointsforcurvefittingispresented.Theconceptofthismethodistoregressasetofmeasuringdatapointsintoanon-parametricequationinimplicitorexplicitform,andthisequationmustalsosatisfythecontinuityofthecurvature.Foraplanecurve,theexplicitnon-paramctricequationtakesthegeneralform:y=/(x).Figure4(Xi.Yl)(X0,Y0)\I(X3.Y3)Fig.5.Curvatureiscalculatedbytlirccdiscretepointsonacircle.Therapidchangeoftheshape0.W0.02(Xi.Yl)(X0,Y0)\I(X3.Y3)Fig.5.Curvatureiscalculatedbytlirccdiscretepointsonacircle.Therapidchangeoftheshape0.W0.020Curvaturechangeillustratesanoverviewoftheproceduretopre-processthedatapointsforreverseengineering.Datapointfilteringisthefirststepindisplacingtheunwantedpointsandthenoisypoints.TheoriginaldatapointsmeasuredfromaphysicalprototypeoranexistingsamplebyaCMMarcindiscreteformat.Whenthemeasuredpointsarcplottedinadiagram,thenoisypointswhichobviouslydeviatefromtheoriginalcurvecanbeselectedandremovedbyavisualsearchbythedesignerforextensiveprocessing.Inaddition,thedistinctdiscontinuouspointswhichapparentlyrelatetoasharpchangeinshapemayllsobeseparatedeasilyforfurtherprocessing.ManyapproacheshavebeendevelopedforgeneratingaCADmodelfrommeasuredpointsinreverseengineering.Acomplexmodelisusuallyconstructedbysubdividingthecompletemodelintoindividualsimplesurfaces[8,9].EachoftheindividualsurfacesdefinesasinglefeatureinaCADsystemandacompleteCADmodelisebtainedbyfurthertrimming,blendingandfilleting,orusingothersurfacc-proccssingtools.Whenthedesignerisgivenasetofunorganiseddatapointsmeasuredfromanexistingobject,datapointsegmentationisrequiredtoreconstructacompletemodelbydefiningindividualsimplesurfaces.Therefore,curvatureanalysisforthedatapointsisusedforsubdividingthedatapointsintoindividualgroups.InordertoextracttheprofilecurvesforCADmodelreconstruction,inthisstep,datapointsarcdividedintodifferentgroupsdependingupontheresultofcurvaturecalculationandanalysisofthedatapoints.Foreach2Dcurve,y=thecurvatureisdefinedas:I*伴「3,2[1+『)2嚴(yán)2Ifthedataisexpressedindiscreteform,foranythreeconsecutive points in the same plane(XI,YI)-(X2,Y2)-(X3,Y3),thethreepointsformacircleandthecentre(XO,YO)canbecalculatedas(seeFig.5):XO=YO=where“=(XI+X2)(X2-XI)(Y3-Y2)b=(X2+X3)(X3-X2)(Y2-Yl)c=(Yl-Y3)(Y2-Yl)(Y3-Y2)"=2[(X2-X1)(Y3-Y2)-(X3-X2)(Y2-Yl)]

0 20 40 60 80 100Fd6.Thefilletofthemodel.curvaLure0 20 4() 60 80 100Fig.7.Thecurvaturechangeofthefillet.e=(Yl+Y2)(Y2-Yl)(X3-X2)/=(Y2+Y3)(Y3-Y2)(X2-XI)g=(Xl-X3)(X2-XI)(X3-X2)And,thecurvaturekof(X2,Y2)canbedefinedas:&_1 1 「一廠m'((X0-X2)2+(YO-Y2)2) 口1)Figure6illustratesanexampleinwhichthecurvaturesofaplanecurveconsistingofadatapointsetarccalculatedusingthepreviousmethod.Thecurvatureofthecurvedc.crmincdbythedatapointsetchangesfrom0to0.0333,asshowninFig.7.Thisindicatesthatthereisafilletfeaturewitharadius30inthedatapointsset.Thus,thesepointscanbeisolatedfromtheoriginaldatapoints,andformasinglefcalurc.Bycurvatureanalysis,thetotalarrayofdatapointsisdividedintoseveralgroups.Eachofthesegroupsisasegmentedformoftheoriginaldatapointswhichisdevoidofanysharpchangeinshape.Aftersegmentation,individualgroupsofdatapointsarcseparatelyregressedintoexplicitnon-parametricequations,andthenthedatapointscanberegeneratedfromtheregressionequationinawell-orderedsequence,withappropriatespacingandanequaldistributionsothatbetterfittingcanbeachieved.TheformatofthenewdatapointsetisvalidforfitingintoasinglesimpleB-splinecurvewithoutinnerconstraints,whichcanbeappliedforfurthereditingandmodifying,suchastrimmingandextending.Bycombiningindividualcurvestoconstructallofthesurfaces,designersmayeffortlesslyachieveacompleteCADmodelconformingtothedesignintent.Additionally,someregressionerrorsarcintroducedbytheregressionoperationbetweenthemeasuredpointsandtheregressionequation.Inthefollowingexample,theorderoftheregressionequationisdiscussed,becauseitbearsacloserelationshiptotheregressionerrors.Givenasetofexistingdatapoints,thesetisregressedusingadifferentorderoftheregression(order=2,3,4,5).Figure8illustratestherelationshipbetweentheorderoftheregressionequationsandtheregressederrorscalculatedbytheroot-mcan-squarc(r.m.s.)method.ThisFfe.9?Th匕procedureofimplementation.figureshowsthatincreasingtheequationordercausesadecreaseofther.m.s.error.However,inmostcases,whenthe5th-ordcroftheregressionequationisused;,thecoefficientofthe5th-orderitembecomeszero.ix.ther.m.s.errorofthe4th-orderequationisequaltothe5th-orderequation.Thismeansthatthedesigneronlyhastoregressthedatapointsintoa4th-orderequation.Inpractice^a4th-orderequationhasalreadysatisfiedthedemandforcurvaturecontinuityinCADmodelconstructionforindustrialapplications.ImplementationInordertoprovetheeffectivenessandfcasib訂ityoftheproposedmethod-thepre-processingofdatapointsforcurvefittingsanimplementedeaseisdevelopedfoliowingthestepsoftheflowchart(Fig..9).AMitutoyoBN706coordinatemeasuringmachineequippedwithaRenishawPH9touchprobeandSASstatisticssoftwarcisusedasatoolforsystemimplementation.ThemeasurementofthepartsurfaceisperformedviastandardCMMcontroIandmeasurementsoftwarc(Gcopnk2800).ToensurethattheproposedmethodisusefulforpracticalapplicationacommercialCADsystem;,Pro/EnginccFjisintegrated804B6PCCMMGEOPAKCMMprogramMitutoyo2800BN706Measureddata1ASCIICodePeotiiim133PentiumII350SASPreprocessingofdatapointsIGESfomiatPro/EngineerCurvesfitting&SurfaceconstmclionFig.10.Config-urationofsystemcomponentsforimplementation.F運.11.Th匕physicalmodelofimplementation.intheimplementation.TheoverallconfigurationofthesystemcomponentsisshowninFig.10.Firstthecross-sectionalcurvesdescribingtheshapeoftheimplementedsamplearcmeasuredbytheCMM.Thephysicalobjectwhichistypicallyofsymmetricgeometry^asshowninFig.II、isusedintheimplementedease.TheCADmodelofasymmetricobjectcaneasilybeconstructedbymirroringthesymmetricfeaturesaboutthecentreline..Thereforesomecross-scctionalcurveswhicharcsymmetricrequ.irconlydataforhalfthecurveandthentheotherhalfcanbemirroredtogeneratethecompletecurve.TheresultsofthemeasurementisshowninFig.I2.Whenthemeasurementiscompletedtheindividualdatapointsetsrepresentingdifferentcross-sectionalcurvesarcprocessedseparately.Inthisimplementedcasc^thecentralcross-scctionalcurveisprocessedasaninstancetodemonstratetheprocedureforpre-processingthedntapoints^where144pointsarcobtainedinthiscurveasshowninFig.13(a).Inthedatapointsfilteringstepthenoisypointsanddistinctdiscontinuouspoints^whichobviouslydeviatefromthegroupofdatapoints^arcremoveddirectlyforprc-proccssing.Afterfilteringstheresidualdataconsistof132points^usshowninFig.13(/?).In(b)(c)F?.12.Theresultofmeasurement.Theorieinaldatapoints(144points).NoisepointsPointsforanotherprocessingThefiltereddatapoints(132points).Segmeinaiionaccording<ocurvaturevariation.(d)Fig.15.Smoothingthedistributionofpointsbythemedianmethod.curvatureFig.16.Curvaturevariationofthecentralcross-sectionalcurvedctcmiincdbynewpoints.Regeneratingthedatapointstopcurve.Fittingtopcurve.rHttingthewallcurves.F?.13.Thestepsofpre-processingthedatapointsofthecentralcross-sectionalcurve.orcertosegmentthedatapoints,thecurvaturesofthecurverepresentingtheresidualdatapointsarccalculatedandplott

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