英美概況論述題

本文格式為Word版，下載可任意編輯——英美概況論述題1.WhatdoyouknowabouttheRomaninvasionofBritain?——In55BCand54BC,JuliusCaesar,aRomangeneral,invadedBritaintwice.InAD43,theEmperorClaudiusinvadedBritainsuccessfully.Fornearly400yearsBritainwasundertheRomanoccupation,thoughitwasneveratotaloccupation.BritishrecordedhistorybeginswiththeRomaninvasion.

2.WhydidtheWilliamtheConquerorinvadeEnglandafterEdward’sdeath?——ItwassaidthatkingEdwardhadpromisedtheEnglishthronetoWilliambuttheWitanchoseHaroldasking.SoWilliamledhisarmytoinvadeEngland.InOctober1066,duringtheimportantbattleofHastings,WilliamdefeatedHaroldandkilledhim.OnChristmasDay,WilliamwascrownedkingofEngland,thusbeginningtheNormanConquestofEngland.

3.WhatweretheconsequencesoftheNormanConquest?——TheNormanConquestof1066isoneofthebestknowneventsinEnglishhistory.Itbroughtaboutmanyconsequences.WilliamconfiscatedalmostallthelandandgaveittohisNormanfollowers.HereplacedtheweakSaxonrulewithastrongNormangovernment.SothefeudalsystemwascompletelyestablishedinEngland.RelationswiththeContinentwereopened,andcivilizationandcommercewereextended.Norman-Frenchculture,language,manners,andarchitecturewerebeenintroduced.ThechurchwasbroughtintocloserconnectionwithRome,andthechurchcourtswereseparatedfromthecivilcourts.

4.WhatwerethecontentsandthesignificanceoftheGreatCharter?——TheGreatCharter,ortheMagnaCarta,wasdocumentsignedin1215betweenthebaronsandkingJohn.Ithadaltogether63clauses,ofwhichthemostimportantcontentswerethese:(1)notaxshouldbemadewithouttheapprovaloftheGrandCouncil;(2)nofreemanshouldbearrested,imprisoned,ordeprivedofhispropertyexceptbythelawoftheland;(3)thechurchshouldpossessallitsrightsandprivileges;(4)Londonandothertownsshouldretaintheirancientrightsandprivileges;(5)thereshouldbethesameweightsandmeasuresthroughoutthecountry.TheGreatCharterwasastatementofthefeudalandlegalrelationshipbetweentheCrownandthebarons,aguaranteeofthefreedomoftheChurchandalimitationofthepowersoftheking.ThespiritoftheGreatCharterwasthelimitationofthepowersoftheking,butithaslongbeenregardedasthefoundationofEnglishliberties.

5.WhatdoyouknowabouttheEnglishRenaissance?——RenaissancewastherevivalofclassicalliteratureandartisticstylesinEuropeanhistory.ItbeganinItalyintheearly14thcenturyandspreadtoEnglandinthelate15thcentury.TheEnglishRenaissancehad5characteristics:(1)EnglishculturewasrevitalizednotsomuchdirectlybytheclassicsasbycontemporaryEuropeansundertheinfluenceoftheclassics;(2)EnglandasaninsularcountryfollowedacourseofsocialandpoliticalhistorywhichwastoagreatextentindependentofthecourseofhistoryelsewhereinEurope;(3)Owningtothegreatgeniusofthe14thcenturypoetchaucer,thenativeliteraturewasvigorousenoughandexperiencedinassimilatingforeigninfluenceswithoutbeingsubjectedbythem;(4)EnglishRenaissanceliteratureischieflyartistic,ratherthanphilosophicalandscholarly;(5)theRenaissancecoincidedwiththeReformationinEngland.TheEnglishRenaissancewaslargelyliterary,andachieveditsfinestexpressionintheso-calledElizabethandrama.ItsfinestexponentswereChristopherMarlowe,BenJonson,andWilliamShakespeare.

6.WhydidtheRestorationtakeplace?——WhenOliverCormwelldiedin1658andwassucceededbyhisson,Richard,theregimebegantocollapse.OneofCromwell’sgeneralsoccupiedLondonandarrangedfornewparliamentaryelections.TheParliamentthuswaselectedin1660,andtoresolvethecrisis,itaskedthelateking’ssontoreturnfromhisexileinFranceaskingCharlesII.ItwascalledtheRestoration.

7.Howdidthe“GloriousRevolution〞breakout?Whatwasthesignificanceofit?——In1685CharlesIIdiedandwassucceededbyhisbrotherJamesII.James,whowasbroughtupinexileinEurope,wasaCatholic,Hehopedtorulewithoutgivinguphispersonalreligiousviews.ButEnglandwasnomoretolerantofaCatholickingin1688than40years.SotheEnglishpoliticiansrejectedJamesII,andappealedtoaProtestantking,WilliamofOrange,toinvadeandtaketheEnglishthrone.WilliamlandedinEnglandin1688.Thetakeoverwasrelativelysmooth,withnobloodshed,noanyexecutionoftheking.ThiswasknownastheGloriousRevolution.WilliamandhiswifeMarywerebothprotestantsandbecameco-monarchs.TheyacceptedtheBillofRights.It’sthebeginningoftheageofconstitutionalmonarchy.

8.WhatisyourcommentonlandenclosuresinEngland?——Agriculturalenclosurebecamefrequentinthelate18thandearly19thcenturies.Ithasgoodaswellasbadresults:(1)Farmsbecamebiggerandbiggerunitsasthegreatboughtupthesmall;(2)morevegetables,moremilkandmoredairyproducewereconsumed,anddietbecamemorevaried;(3)enclosurewasadisasterforthetenantsevictedfromtheirlandsbytheenclosures.Theywereforcedtolookforworkintowns,whichrapidlybecamehopelesslyovercrowded.Italsoleadtomassemigration,particularlytotheNewWorld;(4)anewclasshostilitywasintroducedintoruralrelationships.Concentrationoflandinfewerhandsincreasedthepriceoflandanddashedthelabourers’

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hopesofevenowninghisownland.Manybecamewagelabourers,earninglowratesinspiteofagriculture’snewprosperity.9.HowdidtheEnglishIndustrialRevolutionproceed?——TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganwiththetextileindustry.It’scharacterizedbyaseriesofinventionsandimprovementsofmachines,suchasJohnRay’sflyingshuttle,JamesHargreaves’spinningJenny,RichardArkwright’swaterframeandSamuelCropton’smule.TheScottishinventorJamesWattproducedaveryefficientsteamenginein1765,whichcouldbeappliedtotextileandothermachinery.Themostimportantelementinspeedingindustrializationwasthebreakthroughinsmeltingironwithcokeinsteadofcharcoalin1709.Similardevelopmentsoccurredintheforgingsideoftheironindustrywhichenabledirontoreplacewoolandstoneinmanysectorsoftheeconomy.Improvedtransporationranparallelwithproduction.Asaresultoftheindustrialrevolution,Britainwasby1830the“workshopoftheworld〞;noothercountrycouldcompetewithherinindustrialproduction.

10.WhatdoyouknowabouttheChartistMovementandthePeople’sCharter?What’syourcommentonthem?——TheChartistMovementwasanindustrialworkingclassmovementthathappenedinEnglandfrom1836to1848.In1836agroupofskilledworkersandsmallshopkeepersformedtheLondonWorkingMen’sAssociation.Theydrewupacharterofpoliticaldemands(knownasthePeople’sCharter)in1838,whichhadsixpoints:(1)thevoteforalladultmales,(2)votingbysecretballot,(3)equalelectoraldistricts,(4)abolitionofpropertyqualificationsformembersofParliament,(5)paymentofmembersofParliament,and(6)annualParliament,withaGeneralElectioneveryJune.Supportforthesesixdemandswasloudlyvoicedalloverthecountry.OtherworkingmenformedChartistgroupsthroughoutthecountrytopressParliamenttoacceptthe6points.ButParliamentrejectedthemforthreetimes.Intheend,theChartistMovementfailed.Itfailedbecauseofitsweakanddividedleadership,anditslackofcoordinationwithtrade-unionism.Theworkingclasswasstillimmature.TheChartistMovement,however,thefirstnationwideworkingclassmovementanddrewattentiontoseriousproblems.The6pointswereachievedverygraduallyovertheperiodof1858-1918,althoughthesixthhasneverbeenpractical.

11.HowdidtheLabourPartycomeintobeing?——Asthenewworkingclassbecameestablishedintheindustrialtownsinthelate18thcentury,theybecameawareofthepowerwhichtheycouldpossessiftheyactedtogetherinsteadofseparately.SovariousworkingclassorganizationswereformedwhichbroughtabouttheformationoftheLabourParty.TheLabourPartyhaditsoriginsintheIndependentLabourParty,whichwasformedinJanuary,1893andLedbyKeirHardie,aScottishminer.Thefoundationofaneffectivepartyforlabourdependedonthetradeunions.In1900,representativesoftradeunions,theILP,andanumberofsmallsocietiessetuptheLabourRepresentationCommittee(LRC).TheLRCchangeditsnametobeLabourPartyintimeforthegeneralelectionwhichwascalledfor1906.TheLabourPartyremainsoneofthetwomajorpartiesinBritainuntiltoday.

12.Whatisaconstitutionalmonarchy?WhendiditbegininBritain?——AconstitutionalmonarchyisagovernmentalsysteminwhichtheheadofStateisakingoraqueenwhoreignsbutdoesnotrule.ThecountryisnamelyreignedbytheSovereign,butvirtuallybyHisorHerMajesty’sGovernment——abodyofMinisterswhoaretheleadingmembersofwhicheverpoliticalpartytheelectoratehasvotedintooffice,andwhoareresponsibletoParliament.TheConstitutionalMonarchyinBritainbeganin1689,whenkingWilliamandQueenMaryjointlyacceptedtheBillofRights,whichguaranteedfreespeechwithinboththeHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommonsandconstitutionalmonarchy,ofamonarchywithpowerlimitedbyParliamentbegan.

13.WhatistheroleoftheMonarchyintheBritishgovernment?——Thesovereignisthesymbolofthewholenation.Inlaw,he/sheisheadoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,headofthejudiciary,thecommander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesofthecrownandthe“supremegovernor〞oftheestablishedchurchofEngland.

14.WhatarethemainfunctionsofParliament?——ThemainfunctionsofParliamentare:(1)topasslaws;(2)toprovidethemeansofcarryingontheworkofgovernmentbyvotingfortaxation;(3)toexaminegovernmentpolicyandadministration,includingproposalsforexpenditure;(4)todebatethemajorissuesoftheday.

15.Whydothecriminalconvictsliketobetriedfirstbeforethemagistrates’courts?——AMagistrates’courttriessummaryoffencesand“eitherway〞offences.Itisopentothepublicandthemediaandusuallyconsistsofthreeunpaid“l(fā)ay〞magistrates.Amagistrates’courtsitswithoutajury.Thecriminallawpresumestheinnocenceoftheaccuseduntilhehasbeenprovedguiltybeyondreasonabledoubt;everypossiblestepistakentodenytotheprosecutionanyadvantageoverthedefence.Noaccusedpersonhastoanswerthequestionsofthepolicebeforetrials;heisnotcompelledtogiveevidenceortosubmittocross-examinationincourt.

16.Whatdoesthecivilcourtssystemdo?——Thecivilcourtssystemdoesthefollowingjurisdiction:(1)actionsfounded

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uponcontractandtort;(2)trustandmortgagescases;(3)actionsfortherecoveryofland;(4)casesinvolvingdisputesbetweenlandlordsandtenants;(5)admiraltycasesandpatentcases;and(7)divorcecasesandotherfamilymatters.

17.Whatismeantbytheterm“welfarestate〞inBritain?——Thewelfarestateisasystemofgovernmentbywhichthestateprovidestheeconomicandsocialsecurityofitscitizensthroughitsorganizationofhealthservices,pensionsandotherfacilities.Thesystemisfundedoutofnationalinsurancecontributionsandtaxation.InBritainthetermappliesmainlytoNationalHealthService(NHS),nationalinsuranceandsocialsecurity.

18.WhatisthemostimportantestablishedChurchinBritain?HowisitrelatedtotheCrownandlinkedwiththeState?——ThemostimportantestablishedChurchinBritainistheChurchofEngland.ItisuniquelyrelatedtotheCrowninthattheSovereignmustbeamemberofthatchurchand,as“DefenderoftheFaith〞,mustpromiseonhisorheraccessiontoupholdit.ChurchofEnglandarchbishops,bishopsanddeansofcathedralsareappointedbytheMonarchontheadviceofthePrimeMinister.TheChurchisalsolinkedwiththeStatethroughtheHouseofLords,inwhichthetwoarchbishops(ofCanterburyandYork),thebishopsofLondon,DurhamandWinchester,and21otherseniorbishopsofLondon,DurhamandWinchester,and21otherseniorbishopshaveseats

19.WhatdistinguishestheOpenUniversityfromallotherBritishUniversities?——TheOpenUniversityisnon-residentialuniversitywhichis“open〞toalltobecomestudents.ItoffersdegreeandothercoursesforadultstudentsofallagesinBritainandothermembercountriesoftheEU.Itwasfoundedin1969andbeganitsfirstcoursesin1970.Itwasacombinationofspeciallyproducedprintedtexts,correspondencetuition,televisionandradiobroadcastsandaudio/videocassettes.Forsomecourses,thereareresidentialschools.Thereisanetworkofstudycentersforcontactwithpart-timetutorsandcounselors,andwithfellowstudents.

20.Saysomethingaboutthethreeimmigrationwaves.——Thefirstimmigrationwavebeganinthemid1810s,grewsteadilyduringthe1830sand40sandreachedthehighestpointin1845.Thesecondwavecoveredtheperiodbetween1860and1890.Thethirdwavewasthelargestofthethree.Ithappededbetween1890and1914.

21.WhydidtheearlysettlerscometoAmerica?WhowerethePilgrims?WhowerethePuritans?WhatwerethefeaturesinthecolonialperiodwhichhadinfluenceonlaterAmericandevelopment?——TheearlysettlerscametoAmericaeitherfortheopportunitytorealizetheirdreamsandbettertheirlivesorforthefreedomfromreligiousandgovernmentalpersecution.ThePilgrimswerepersonswhosufferedreligiouspersecutioninEnglandandwenttoHollandandlatermovedtoAmericain1620.ThePuritanswerethemembersofaProtestantgroupinEnglandwhowantedtopurifytheChurchofEngland.DissatisfiedandthreatenedinEngland,theysawAmericaasarefugeandmigratedtoAmericasince1630.TherewereanumberoffeaturesinthecolonialperiodwhichhadinfluenceonlaterAmericandevelopment.Theywere:representativeformofgovernment,ruleoflaw,respectofindividualrights,religioustoleranceandastrongspiritofindividualenterprise.

22.WhatwerethecausesoftheWarofIndependence?——Theeconomyinthethirteencoloniesdevelopedveryfastandpeoplewantedmorepowertodeteminetheirownbusiness.ButthepolicyoftheBritishgovernmentwastobringthedevelopmentundercontrolandtocollectmoretaxesfromthecolonies.OnApril19,1775,ontheirwaytoConcordtoseizethemilitarysuppliesofthemilitiathere,theBritishsoldiersmetarmedmilitiamen.Theshotswerefired,theWarofIndependencebegan.

23.WhatwasunusualabouttheArticleofConfederation?WhatwasthestruggleattheConstitutionalConvention?Howwastheconflictsolved?——TheArticleofConfederationwasunusualinmanyways.First,itprovidedfornoking.ThedraftersblamedthetroubleswithBritainonkingGeorgeIII.Sotheydecidednottohaveakingbuttohavearepublic.Thiswasrevolutionary.Second,whiletheArticlescreatedacentralgovernmentintheformofaCongress,theemphasiswasstillonstatepowers.Third,theArticlesofConfederationwasawrittenconstitutionfortheUnitedStates.Noimportantcountryintheworldatthattime,includingBritain,hadawrittenconstitution.AttheConstitutionConvertionthedelegatesallagreeditwasimpossibletotrytopatchuptheArticlesofConfederation,anddecidedtoignorethemanddrawupanewplanofgovernment.Herecontradictionsemergedbetweenthebiggerstatesandsmallerstates,betweentheindustrialcommercialinterestsandlandedinterests,etc.Intheend,theconflictwasresolvedbythe“GreatCompromise〞ofJuly16,givingeachstateandequalvoteintheSenatebutmakingrepresentationintheHousereflectthesizeofeachstate’spopulation.

24.WhydidtheCivilWarbreakout?Howdidthewarend?——Intheearly1800s,theNorthernstatesturnedfromfarmingtomanufacturing.BlackslaverysoondisappearedintheNorth.ButthingsweredifferentintheSouth.TheSouthexpandedbothitsagricultureanditsslavery.Theproblemofslaverybecameaserouspoliticalissue.Theabolitioniststriedtoabolish

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slaverywhiletheSouthtriedtokeepit.WhenAbrahamLincolnwaselectedPresident,theSouthernstatesbrokeawayandformedanewnation.ThenLincolnwasdeterminedtomaintaintheUnionandthewarbrokeoutonApril12,1861,LincolnrealizedthathecouldwinsupportfortheUnionathomeandabroadbymakingthewarajustwaragainstslavery.SoheissuedEmancipationProclamation.ThusEnglandandFrancestoodbytheUnion’sside.ManyblackslavesjoinedtheUnionArmy.Afteraseriesofbattles,RobertLeecouldnolongerholdRichmond.HesurrenderedonApril9,1865.TheCivilWarended.25.WhatwerethecontentsoftheNewDeal?——TheNewDealincludedthefollowingcontents;(1)establishmentandstrengtheningofgovernmentregulationandcontrolofbanking,creditandcurrencysystems,overcomingthefinancialcrisisandrestrictionofcertainextremepracticesoffinancialcapital;(2)federalgovernmentmanagementofreliefandestablishmentofsocialsecuritysystemsuchastheformationoftheCivilianConservationCropsandthesetting-upoftheTennesseeValleyAuthority;(3)stimulationoftherecoverofindustryandagriculture;(4)formulationandimplementationoffederallabourlawstoraisetheroleoflabourintherelationsofproduction;(5)improvementofthesituationofminoritiesandmembersofcertainreligiousgroups.

26.WhatwastheimpactoftheVietnamWar-onAmericansociety?——TheVietnamWarhadagreatimpactonAmericansociety.(1)TheUnitedStateswasweakenedasaresultofthelongwar.(2)AmericansocietyhadneverbeensodividedsincetheCivilWar.(3)Therewasseriousdisagreementwithintherulingcircle.(4)TheimageoftheUnitedStates,especiallytheimageoftheAmericanarmedforces,wasdiscredited.

27.WhowasMcCarthyandwhatwasMcCarthyism?——JosephR.McCarthywasU.S.Senator.HestartedhiscampaignbysayingonFeb.9,1950thathehadthenamesofover200CommunistsintheStateDepartment.Hiscampaignofaccusationandanti-CommunisthysteriawascalledMcCarthyism.

28.Whatiscounterculture?Whataresomeoftheformsofcounterculture?——Countercultureisamovementofrevoltagainstthemoralvalues,theaestheticstandards,thepersonalbehaviorandthesocialrelationsofconventionalsociety.Revolutionariesbecamemodelsforsomepeople.Manyyoungpeopleexperimentedwithdrugs.Music,especiallyrockmusic,becamethechiefvehicleforthecountercultureattackonthestatusquo.

29.WhatarethefunctionsoftheCongress?——TheCongresshasmanyfunctions,butthemostcentralisthepassageoflaw.Oneofthemostimportantnon-legislativefunctionsoftheCongressisthepowertoinvestigate.AsecondimportantpoweristocompeltestimonyfromunwillingwitnessandtociteforcontemptofCongresswitnesswhorefusetotestify,andforperjurythosewhogivefalsetestimony.

30.WhataresomeofthecharacteristicsofAmericaneducation?——(1)FormaleducationintheUnitedStatesconsistsofelementary,secondaryandhighereducation.(2)Publiceducationsisfreeandcompulsory.(3)DiversityisconsideredtobeanoutstandingcharacteristicofAmericaneducation.(4)Educationisafunctionofthestates,notthefederalgovernment.V.Writeabout150onthefollowingtopic.

1.WhyandhowdidtheEnglishParliamentcomeintobeing?——AfterkingJohndiedin1216,hissonbecameHenryIII.Hefilledthemostimportantofficeswithforeigners,undertookanexpensivewarwhichendedinthelossofalargelandanddemandedmoremoneytoenablehissontobekingofSicily.Sothebaronsrebelled.UndertheleadershipofSimondeMontfort,theydefeatedthekingin1264.In1265,SimondeMontrortsummonedtheGreatCounciltomeetatWestminster,togetherwithtwoknightsfromeachcountryandtwocitizensfromeachtown.Thismeetinghasbeenconsideredastheearliestparliament.TheGreatCouncildevelopedlaterintotheLordsandtheCommonsknownasaparliament.BothHouseswerecalledtoagreetotaxation.TheCommonscouldpresentpetitionstothekingwhichwerethefirstparliamentarybills.ButParliamentonlymetbyroyalinvitation.Itsrolewastoofferadvice,nottomakedecisions.ThemostimportantpartofParliamentwastheHouseofLords.

2.HowdidtheCivilWarsbreakout?WhatweretheconsequencesoftheCivilWars?——CharlesI,alsobelieved“theDivineRightofkings〞.Hisprerogativerightsshouldnotbechallengedbyanyone.ItencouragedconfrontationwithParliament,whosemembershadbecomeincreasinglyPuritaninsympathy.HemanagedtoruleEnglandfor11yearswithoutParliament.Butin1640,CharlesneededmoneyandfearedtheinvasionoftheScotsandhadtocalltheLongParliament.ThenawholeseriesofmeasureswereintroducedbytheParliamentlimitingtheauthorityoftheCrownwhileincreasingitsown.Thus,by1642,thekingandthecommonswereateachother’sthroats,warwasinevitable.In1642,thefirstCivilWarbrokeout.Byautumn1646,ParliamentheldmostofEnglandandnextyearCharleswascapturedbutescaped.HemadeadealwiththeScotswhoinvadedEnglandbutweredefeatedbyCromwell.ThuswasthebeginningoftheSecondCivilWar.InNovember1648,the

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kingwascapturedagainandcondemnedtodeath.TheEnglishCivilWarshavebeenseenaconflictbetweenParliamentandtheking,butalsoasaconflictbetweentheeconomicinterestsoftheurbanmiddleclassesandthetraditionaleconomicinterestsoftheCrown.TheEnglishCivilWarsnotonlyoverthrewfeudalsysteminEnglandbutalsoshookthefoundationofthefeudalruleinEurope.Itisgenerallyregardedasthebeginningofmodernworldhistory.

3.Tellbrieflythehistoryofthetwo-partysystemintheUnitedStates.WhatarethecharacteristicsofthetwomajorpartiesintheUnitedStatestoday?——PoliticalpartiesarethebasisoftheAmericanpoliticalsystem.Ingeneral,Americahasatwo-partysystem.Thismeansthattwomajorpoliticalparties-nowtheDemocratsandtheRepublicans-dominatepoliticsatthefederal,stateandlocallevels.TherehavebeenfourperiodsinthehistoryofpoliticalpartiesinAmerica.Thefirstperiodsofthepartysystembeganwiththefirsttwomajorpartiesorcamps——theFederalistsandtheAnti-FederalistsledbyAlexanderHamilton.MostoftheAnti-FederalistslateracceptedtheConstitutionwiththeBillofRights,andbegantocallthemselvesDemocratic-Republican.Afterthe1828electionofAndrewJackson,theDemocratic-RepublicanPartysplit.Themainfaction,ledbyAndrewJackson,calledthemselvestheDemocraticParty,whilethefactionopposedtoJacksonformedtheWhigPartyin1834.Asthestruggleoverslaveryintensified,themajorityoftheWhigParty,partofthedemocrats,andotheranti-slaveryelementsfoundedin1854theRepublicanParty.Thethirdphaseofthetwo-partysystemranfromthe1860stothe1920swiththeRepublicanPartydominatingthepoliticalsceneformostofthetime.ThefourthperiodbeganwithFranklinD.Roosevelt’scomingintopowerandlastedtillthe1980s.Inthisperiod,forabout50years,withshortinterruptions,theDemocraticPartywasdominant.TheTwomajorpartiesarereallynotverydifferenttoday.Butthisdoesnotmeanthereisnotdifferencebetweenthem.Oneconomicissues,theDemocratstraditionallyfavourgovernmentinterventionwhiletheRepublicansstresstheroleofthemarketmore.OnsocialissuestheDemocratssupportastrongsocialsecuritysystemwhiletheRepublicansopposelargegovernmentsocialsecurityprograms.Inspiteofthesedifferences,thetwopartiesbothbelieveinindividualism,defendcapitalismandupholdprivateownershipofmeansofproduction.Intermsoforganizationthetwopartiesareactuallyloosepoliticalcoalitions.

4.WhatwerethecausesandconsequencesoftheWarof1812?——Thecausesleadingtothewarwerethefollowing:(1)Awarbet