新編語言學(xué)教程

ACourseonLinguistics

forStudentsofEnglish

Linguistics:ANewCoursebook

《新編語言學(xué)教程》

TheGoalsforthisCourseTogetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication……;Toprepareforthefutureresearchwork.語言學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)應(yīng)注意的方面：

1)術(shù)語問題2）語言學(xué)理論問題

3）語言學(xué)研究方法問題

4）語言學(xué)研究名家5）學(xué)習(xí)習(xí)慣問題Chapter1Introduction

ILinguistics1.

Definitionoflinguistics2.Linguisticsandtraditionalgrammar3.Useofstudyinglinguistics4.Scopeoflinguistics

IILanguage1.WhyStudyLanguage?2.Definitionsoflanguage3.Originoflanguage4.DesignFeaturesofLanguage5.FunctionsoflanguageⅢSomemajorconceptsinlinguistics

1.DefinitionofLinguistics

Linguisticsisthescientificorsystematicstudyoflanguage(p.1).語言學(xué)常被定義為一門關(guān)于語言的科學(xué)或?qū)φZ言的科學(xué)研究。Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.1)Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies(P1)Exhaustiveness/adequacy（窮盡性）：useadequatesamplesinthestudy.Thelinguistsshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation.Ifheleavesmanyfactsundiscussedorunexplained,hisstudywillnotberegardedasexhaustiveandhisconclusionswillnotbeacceptedasscientific.Consistency（一致性）：keeptherulesconsistentinthestudyofalanguage.Thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economy（簡(jiǎn)潔性、經(jīng)濟(jì)性）：ruleouttheredundancy,makekeypartstandoutinlanguagedescriptionorlanguageanalysis.Otherthingsbeingequal,ashortstatementoranalysisispreferredtoalongerormorecomplexone.Objectivity（客觀性）：describealanguageasitis.Alinguistshouldbeasobjectiveaspossibleinhisdescriptionandanalysisofdataandcannotallowprejudicetoinfluencehisgeneralizations.2)Twopurposes(p.2)a.Linguisticsstudiesthenatureoflanguageinordertoestablishatheoryoflanguageanddescribeslanguagesinthelightofthetheoryestablished.b.Linguisticsexaminesalltheformsoflanguageingeneralandseeksascientificunderstandingofthewaysinwhichitisorganizedtofulfilltheneedsitservesandthefunctionsitperformsinhumanlife.2.Thedifferencebetweenlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar(P2-3)Traditionalgrammar,asapre-20thcenturylanguagedescriptionandpre-linguisticproductofresearch,wasbaseduponearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek(e.g.EnglishhadsixcasesbecauseLatinhadsixcases),andlaidemphasis

oncorrectness,literary

excellence,theuseofLatin

models,andthepriority

of

written

language.

2.Linguisticsvs.TraditionalGrammarA.Linguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesofcorrectness.Hedoesnotbelievethatthereissomeabsolutestandardofcorrectnessconcerninglanguageuse.

Instead,hewouldprefertobeanobserverandrecorderoffacts,butnotajudge.

Traditionalgrammarwasverystronglynormativeincharacter.Thegrammariansawitashistasktoformulatethestandardsofcorrectnessandtoimposethese,ifnecessary,uponthespeakersofthelanguage.B.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.c)LinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Traditionalgrammar----prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframework

規(guī)定性的、書面語的，放進(jìn)一個(gè)拉丁語為基礎(chǔ)的框架內(nèi)Modernlinguistics-----descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework

描述性的、口頭語的，不強(qiáng)行放進(jìn)一個(gè)拉丁語為基礎(chǔ)的框架內(nèi)WeakpointsofTraditionalGrammar1.規(guī)定語言學(xué)家在判斷語言的正確與否時(shí)常從邏輯學(xué)的角度加以觀察，但是卻忽視了語言在受一般邏輯規(guī)律支配的同時(shí)，又有自身的規(guī)律，使得語言規(guī)律與邏輯規(guī)律既有相似性又有相異性。以雙重否定為例。從邏輯學(xué)的角度來看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因如此，規(guī)定語法學(xué)家認(rèn)為：Ididn’tdonothing.正確的解釋為:ItisnottruethatIdidnothing.或Ididsomething.但是，英語使用的現(xiàn)實(shí)卻是這兩種相互矛盾的語義都存在。語義的區(qū)別是通過語言的語音規(guī)律加以實(shí)現(xiàn)的。在前者，“didn’t”重讀，而后者“didn’t不重讀。再看下列例句：Allthechildrendidn’tsleep(Allthechildrenfailedtosleep.)Allthechildrendidn’tsleep.(Notallthechildrenfailedtosleep.)這兩個(gè)話語在語義上的差異也是違反了傳統(tǒng)邏輯規(guī)律。語音規(guī)律的介入很好地解決了這一問題：Allthechildrendidn’tˋsleep.(重音落在sleep上，且使用降調(diào))

ˇAllthechildrendidn’tsleep.（重音落在all上，且使用降升調(diào)）事實(shí)上，這種突破一般邏輯規(guī)律的現(xiàn)象在其它語言中也時(shí)?？梢?。以漢語為例：今天街上好熱鬧。今天街上好不熱鬧。再看漢語中的“差點(diǎn)兒”和“差點(diǎn)兒沒”兩個(gè)表達(dá)法：他差點(diǎn)兒摔倒了。他差點(diǎn)兒沒摔倒。我差點(diǎn)兒通過了考試。

我差點(diǎn)兒沒通過考試。如果用“差點(diǎn)兒”和“差點(diǎn)兒沒”去修飾說話人希望實(shí)現(xiàn)的事情，那么“差點(diǎn)兒”含有惋惜希望的事情未能實(shí)現(xiàn)，而“差點(diǎn)兒沒”是指慶幸希望的事情發(fā)生了。2.Therearenoabsolutestandardsofcorrectnessinlanguageuses.秋浦歌白發(fā)三千丈，緣愁似個(gè)長(zhǎng)。不知明鏡里，何處得秋霜。單看“白發(fā)三千丈”一句，真叫人無法理解：白發(fā)怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白發(fā)，人所共曉，而長(zhǎng)達(dá)三千丈，該有多少深重的愁思。十個(gè)字的千鈞重量落在一個(gè)“愁”字上。以此寫愁，匪夷所思。奇想出奇句，不能不使人驚嘆詩人的氣魄和筆力。3.Useofstudyinglinguistics(pp.3-4)1)Tohaveanoverviewofhumanlanguage;2)Tounderstandthathumanlanguageshaveimportantfeaturesincommonthoughtheydiffergreatlyinmanydetails;3)Togoalongthepathleadingtothefinalprofessioneitherasateacherofforeignlanguagesorasaresearcheroflinguisticsortranslation(p.4)4.Scopeoflinguistics(pp.4-8)1)microlinguisticsVSmacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics,Phonology,Morphology,Syntax,Semantics,Pragmatics.

Thesebranchesareattheverycenteroflinguisticscope.

Macrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics,Psycholinguistics,Neurolinguistics,Stylistics,Discourseanalysis,Computationallinguistics,CognitivelinguisticsThesebranchesarerelatedtosomethingthatisnotatthecenteroflinguisticscope.2)LinguisticsclassifiedfromdifferentperspectivesfunctionallinguisticsVSformallinguisticstheformerstressesthefunctionoflanguageandthelatterstressestheformoflanguagetheoreticallinguisticsVSappliedlinguisticstheformerstudiesthe“pure”theoryinlanguageandthelatterstudieshowtoapplythetheoryTheoreticallinguisticsPhonetics語音學(xué)Phonology音系學(xué)Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)Syntax句法學(xué)Semantics語義學(xué)UseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)Sociolinguistics社會(huì)語言學(xué)Psycholinguistics心理語言學(xué)

……corpuslinguistics—linguisticdescriptionbasedontheextensiveaccumulationofnaturallyoccurringlanguagedataanditsanalysisbycomputers語料庫語言學(xué)forensiclinguistics—theexaminationoflinguisticevidenceforlegalpurposes法律語言學(xué)mathematicallinguistics—thestudyofthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguage數(shù)學(xué)語言學(xué)anthropologicallinguistics—thestudyoflanguageincross-culturalsettings人類語言學(xué)3)Recentdevelopmentsoflinguistics:Corpuslinguistics,DiscourseAnalysis,Cognitivelinguistics,Computationallinguistics,Mathematicallinguistics

IILanguage

1.WhyStudyLanguage?findingoutmoreabouthowthebrainworks;Howchildrenlearnlanguage;Whattherelationshipbetweenmeaningandperceptionis;Whatroleoflanguageisindifferentcultures;…FundamentalviewsaboutlanguageChildrenlearntheirnativelanguageswiftly,efficientlyandwithoutinstruction.Languageoperatesbyrules.Alllanguageshavethreemajorcomponents:asoundsystem,asystemoflexico-grammarandasystemofsemantics.Everyonespeaksadialect.Languageslowlychanges.Speakersofalllanguagesemployarangeofstylesandasetofjargons.Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualswhousethem.……2.WhatisLanguage?Language“isnottobeconfusedwithhumanspeechwhichisonlyadefinitepart,thoughcertainlyanessentialone.Itisbothasocialproductofthefacultyofspeechandacollectionofnecessaryconventionsthathavebeenadoptedbyasocialbodytopermitindividualstoexercisethatfaculty”.--FerdinanddeSaussure(索緒爾：1857-1913)“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”--EdwardSapir(薩丕爾，1884-1939):“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”--NoamChomsky(諾姆·喬姆斯基，1928-)

語言是人類特有的一種符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。當(dāng)作用于人與人的關(guān)系的時(shí)候，它是表達(dá)相互反應(yīng)的中介；當(dāng)作用于人與客觀世界的關(guān)系的時(shí)候，它是認(rèn)知事物的工具；當(dāng)作用于文化的時(shí)候，它是文化信息的載體。（許國(guó)璋《中國(guó)大百科全書?語言文字》）Agenerallyacceptabledefinition:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocal

symbolsusedforhumancommunication.

語言是一個(gè)具有任意性用于人類交流的語音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)LanguageisasystemSystemic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.語言是一個(gè)系統(tǒng)，語言的要素是根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起的。LanguageisarbitraryArbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.語言符號(hào)和符號(hào)所代表的事物之間沒有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系.“pen”“othername”Bysayingthat“l(fā)anguageisarbitrary”,wemeanthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsand

.考研鏈接中山大學(xué)2003年考題soundLanguageisprimarilyvocalVocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.語言是有聲的，因?yàn)樗姓Z言的首要媒介都是聲音.

Writingisderivativeofspeech.LanguageissymbolicinnatureSymbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.象征性——詞語只是符號(hào)，它們通過習(xí)慣與物體、動(dòng)作和概念聯(lián)系起來?！白雷印?“Desk”convention“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”ConventionLanguageishuman-specificHuman-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.語言是人類獨(dú)有的，有別于其他生物的交際系統(tǒng)鳥有鳥語，人有人言。BertrandRussellonceobserved:“Nomatterhoweloquentlyadogmaybark,hecannottellyouthathisparentswerepoorbuthonest.3.Originoflanguage(pp.9-10)Becausenoonecansayhowandwhenlanguageoriginated,therearesomespeculationsaboutit.1)Plato:Therewasa“perfect”language;2)Socrates:Imitationofnaturalsoundswasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage;3)Man’sinstinctiveresponsetocertainexternalstimuliwasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage;4)Ding-DongTheory:Humanspeechdevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontotheobjectsheencountered;5)Sing-SongTheory:Languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise;6)“Poor-Pooh(ExclamationorInterjectional)Theory”stressesthespeaker’semotion;(感嘆說:認(rèn)為語言起源于感嘆詞)7)“Yo-He-HoTheory”:criesutteredduringstrainofwork;勞動(dòng)號(hào)子說

8)“Ta-TaTheory”:Languagecamefromthecombinationofcertaingesturesandtonguemovement;9)“Bow-WowTheory”:imitationofanimalcriesandothersoundsheardinnature.10).

“The‘Divine’origin”:LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.Conclusion:Languageoriginates,growsanddevelopsinsociety.

4.DesignFeaturesofLanguage

語言本質(zhì)特征Languagedistinguisheshumanbeingsfromanimalsinthatitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguageArbitrariness任意性Duality二重性/兩重性/二元性Productivity/Creativity創(chuàng)造性,能產(chǎn)性Interchangeability互換性Displacement移位性/跨時(shí)空性Specialization專門化CulturalTransmission文化傳遞性(1)Arbitrariness----Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.語言符號(hào)的形式和意義間沒有自然的聯(lián)系

eg:

Dogsbarks“汪汪”

inChinesebut“bowwow”inEnglishException:Onomatopoeicwords

象/擬聲詞(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang…)Butthevastmajorityofthewordsinalllanguagesarenon-onomatopoeic:Theconnectionbetweentheirformandtheirmeaningisarbitraryinthat,giventheform,itisimpossibletopredictthemeaningand,giventhemeaning,itisimpossibletopredicttheform.Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.Hecameinandsatdown.(thesequenceofactions)Hesatdownandcamein.(oppositethesequence,maybehegotintowheelchairandpropelledhimselfintoroom)Hesatdownafterhecamein.(use“after”toreversetheorderoftheclause)Conclusion:Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.2013年專八鏈接39._____isalanguagephenomenoninwhichwordssoundlikewhattheyreferto.OnomatopoeiaCollocationC.DenotationD.Assimilation(2)Duality(doublearticulation)

Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Eg:/k/,/a:/,/p/=carp/ka:p/,or/pa:k/Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.有兩個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)層次，上層結(jié)構(gòu)的單位是由底層結(jié)構(gòu)的元素組成的。二重性使得人類語言具有巨大的能動(dòng)性，使為數(shù)不多的幾個(gè)元素就可以創(chuàng)造出大量不同的單位。(3)Productivity/creativity

----Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.

Furthermore,humancantheoreticallycreateainfinitelengthsentences.eg:

Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho...語言的能產(chǎn)性使得說話人僅用基礎(chǔ)的語言單位就可創(chuàng)造出無限多的句子，其中大部分說話人可能沒有聽過也沒有說過。這一特征也使人類語言不同于動(dòng)物——它們只能傳遞一些有限的信息。(4)Interchangeability互換性Interchangeabilityorreciprocityreferstothefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.(5)Displacement

----Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Thus,wecanrefertoConfucius,ortheNorthPole,eventhoughthefirsthasbeendeadforover2550yearsandthesecondissituatedfarawayfromus.

移位性是指語言使用者可以用語言表達(dá)不在交際現(xiàn)場(chǎng)（時(shí)間和空間）的物體、事件及概念。例如，我們可以談?wù)摽追蜃踊蛘弑睒O，盡管孔夫子是四千多年前的人物而北極也遙不可及。Animalcommunicationisnormallyunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”(直接刺激控制).Forinstance,awarningcryofabirdinstantlyannouncesdanger.Humanlanguageisstimulus-free.Whatwearetalkingaboutneednotbetriggeredbyanyexternalstimulusintheworldoranyinternalstate.Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingusthepowertohandlegeneralizationsandabstractions.Oncewecantalkaboutphysicallydistantthing,weacquiretheabilitytounderstandconceptswhichdenote“non-things”,suchastruthandbeauty.(6)Specialization—Itreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.

Weuselanguageinadetachedmanner.Wecantalkaboutanexcitingexperiencewhileengagedinactivitiescompletelydetachedfromthesubjectunderdiscussion.Eg:Amancandiscussafootballgamewithhisfriendwhiledrivingacar.(7)CulturalTransmission—Itmeansthatlanguageisnotgeneticallypasseddownfromonegenerationtoanother.Rather,languagehastobelearned.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.200539.WhichofthefollowingisNOTadistinctivefeatureofhumanlanguage?A.Arbitrariness.B.Productivity.C.Culturaltransmission.D.Finiteness.專八鏈接200838.WhichofthefollowingisNOTadesignfeatureofhumanlanguage?

A.Arbitrariness.B.Displacement.

C.Duality.D.Diachronicity.

5.FunctionsoflanguageLinguiststalkaboutthefunctionsoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreet,praiseandcondemnpeople,etc.Theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.Functionsoflanguage(P14)Phaticfunction/communion:寒暄功能/交感，交際功能Directivefunction:指令功能Informativefunction:信息功能Interrogativefunction:疑問功能Expressivefunction:表達(dá)功能Evocativefunction：情感功能Performativefunction:施為功能⑴Phaticfunction/communion:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.(指語言的社會(huì)交互性)

eg:1)“Howdoyoudo?”2)“吃飯了嗎?”

3)

Mrs.Psneezesviolently.Mrs.Q:Blessyou.Mrs.P:Thankyou.Broadlyspeaking,thisfunctionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslang,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.Weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.Differentcultureshavedifferenttopicsofphaticcommunion.AccordingtoDavidCrystal,theweatherisnotauniversalconversationfillerastheEnglishmightliketothink.Rundiwomen(inBurundi布隆迪,CentralAfrica),upontakingleave,routinelyandpolitelysay

“Imustgohomenow,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.”

Wehavetolearnalargerepertoireofsuchusagesifwearetointeractcomfortablywithdifferentpeople.

⑵Directivefunction:togetthehearertodosth.Mostimperativesentencesareofthisfunctione.g.Closethewindow,please.Youshouldleaverightnow.IfIwereyou,Iwouldtakeit.⑶Informativefunction:giveinformationaboutfacts.e.g.Waterboilsat100degreescentigrade.⑷Interrogativefunction:toaskinformationfromothers.e.g.Howoldareyou?(5)Expressivefunction:Languageisusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.e.g.English:“MyGod”,“Damnit”,“Wow”,“Ugh”,“Ow”,etc.Chinese:“天哪”,“我的媽呀”,“啊”,etc.otherexample,thechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch;theshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings;⑹Evocativefunction：tocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearers.Languageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer,e.g.toamuse,toanger,toworryortopleasethehearer.(jokesaredesignedtoamusetheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;publicspeechaimstoinfluencepeopleinacertainline.)⑺Performativefunction:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.ThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformstheback-boneofpragmatics.Forexample:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.

Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.Forexample,inChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosay歲歲平安

asameansofcontrollingtheinvisibleforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlivesadversely.

Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.補(bǔ)充：Recreationalfunction娛樂功能

Therecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.However,noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.IntheLatinandIslamicworldsaswellasinsomeareasofChina,thereiswidespreaduseofverbaldueling(對(duì)歌),inwhichonesingerbeginsasongofusuallyfewlinesandchallengeshisopponenttocontinuethecontentorprovidearejoinderinasimilarrhythmandrhymescheme.Suchverbalduelsmaylastforafewhoursandisperformedforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.Totakeoneexample,thewell-knownmovie《劉三姐》featuresasceneof“對(duì)歌”

(songdueling)mostlyforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.Ifyouobserveachildren’splay,youwillfindthepowerofsound.Sometimesevennonsensicallyricsperformarecreationalfunctioninthegame:therepetitiverhythmshelptocontrolthegame,andthechildrenplainlytakegreatdelightinit.Adultsalsohavetheirwaytoappreciatelanguageforitsownsake.Forinstance,poetrywritinggivesthemthepleasureofusinglanguageforitssheerbeauty.VerycloseheretoJakobson'spoeticfunction.201040．Languageistoolofcommunication,thesymbol“highwayclosed”servesA.PhaticfunctionB.informativefunctionC.aperformativefunctionD.apersuasivefunction專八鏈接201340.Thesentence"Closeyourbookandlistentomecarefully!"performsa(n)____function.A.interrogativeB.informativeC.performativeD.directive1)Descriptivevsprescriptive

描寫與規(guī)定Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive描寫和分析人們對(duì)語言的實(shí)際運(yùn)用Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviourinusinglanguage,itisprescriptive.(traditionalgram