pragmatics語用學(xué)胡壯麟

ChapterEight

LanguageinUse28.1.1DefinitionofPragmaticsThestudyoflanguageinuse.Thestudyofmeaningincontext.Thestudyofspeakers’meaning,utterancemeaning,&contextualmeaning.31.A:Areyougoingtotheseminar?B:It’sonlinguistics.2.A:Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.3.A:我?guī)У腻X不夠，今天買不了。B:那就下次再買吧。Pragmatics48.1.2SemanticsandPragmatics1.Semantics:Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,sentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.2.Pragmatics:Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageuseisleftunconsidered.Therefore,contextistakenintoconsideration.5KeyinthedistinctionBothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudythemeaningofalinguisticform.However,theyaredifferentinmanyrespects,suchastheirresearchmethods,theirresearchscope.Whatessentiallydistinguishesthemiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifititsnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;Ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.68.2SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)Speechacts:actionsperformedviautterances1.Igotupveryearlythismorning.2.Wearehavingaclassonlinguistics.3.I’msorryformakingyoubored.4.Let’sgoandhaveadrink.1and2:verifiableconstatives(述事話語)3and4:unverifiableperformatives(行事話語)7Constatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,e.g.:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.

8.2.1Constativesvs.Performatives8Performatives:

utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:

name,bet,etc.Constativesvs.performatives9Ido.InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ipromisetofinishitintime.Iapologize.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.Performatives10Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.

Performatives111.第一人稱單數(shù)為主語、現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)、陳述語氣、主動(dòng)語態(tài)動(dòng)詞為謂語。Ipromise/object/agree/swear……Hepromises/Ipromised……(陳述）2.第二人稱為主語、現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)、陳述語氣、被動(dòng)態(tài)動(dòng)詞為謂語。Passengersarerequestedto……Grammaticalandlexicalcriteria

12ProblemswithfelicityconditionsNostrictprocedureforpromising.Ipromise.Igivemywordforit.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.(TorF?)PerformativesConclusion:Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.138.2.2IllocutionaryActTheoryJohnSearle(1932-)Speechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels:Aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:(1)locutionaryact（言內(nèi)行為），(2)illocutionary

act(言外行為),and(3)perlocutionaryact（言后行為）.14Alocutionaryact:theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”.

Alocutinaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonologyThebagisheavy.Itiscoldhere.

Theappleisnice.Locutionaryact15IllocutionaryactAnillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.InsayingX,IwasdoingY.

Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.Illocutionaryforce16Aperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.Shoother!Perlocutionaryact17ExampleWhatarethethreeactsTomperformswhenhesaysthefollowing?“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”(1)Thelocutionaryact(2)Theillocutionaryact(3)Theperlocutionaryact188.3ConversationalImplicaturePeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988)WilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967LogicandConversationin1975198.3.1OriginofthetheoryCase1:(AandBaretalkingabouttheirmutualfriendC)A:HowisC?B:Oh!Quitewell,Ithink;helikeshiscolleagues,andhehasn’tbeentoprisonyet.20OriginofthetheoryCase2:Aboysaystoagirl“你不戴眼鏡的時(shí)候很漂亮”.Andthegirlimmediatelyresponds:“那我戴眼鏡的時(shí)候一定很丑了”.21Grice’stheoryLogicandConversation

isanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Definition22MaximofQuality:

Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.8.3.2Maxims23MaximofRelation:

Berelative.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.Maxims

24CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.However,CPisoftenviolated.SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.8.3.3ViolationofCPanditsmaxims25Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.

A:昨天上街買了些什么?B:就買了些東西。>Idon’twanttotellyouwhatIbought.26DearSir,Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.Yours>Mr.Xisnotsuitableforthejob.Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)272.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.>Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)28A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.>

Wariswar.>Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)29Violationofthemaxims

(Quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Xrunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron.302.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

A:BeirutisinPeru,isn’tit? B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose. >It’sridiculous.Violationofthemaxims

(Quality)31Violationofthemaxims

(Relation)Berelevant. A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag. B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear. >Idon’twanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.萍：爸爸，不過四鳳同魯貴在家里都很好,很忠誠的。樸：恩，我很累了。我預(yù)備到書房歇一下。你叫他們送一碗濃一點(diǎn)的普洱茶來。>

32Violationofthemaxims

(Manner)1.Avoidobscurityofexpression A:Let’sgetthekidssomething. B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E. >Don’tgivethemchocolate.2.Avoidambiguity

A:Nameandtitle,please? B:JohnSmith,AssociateEditorandprofessor. Cf: 買一贈(zèng)一。333.Bebrief

A:Didyougetmyassignment? B:Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles. >notsatisfied.Violationofthemaxims

(Manner)34ExercisesTellwhatmaximisviolatedinthefollowingutterances,andwhat’stheirconversationalimplicatures.1.

Suppose

Mary

knowsthat

Tom

knowssheis

verywell.

ButwhenTominvitesMarytoapartyfortheweekend,Maryanswers:“Sorry,Idon’tfeelverywell.”35Exercises2.

A:你打算什么時(shí)候結(jié)婚？

B:我結(jié)婚的時(shí)候結(jié)婚。3.

A:我的那盒巧克力呢？

B:剛才我餓了。36Exercises4.

A:Canyouanswerthephone?B:I’minthebath.5.

A:WhatsongsdidMissXsinglastnight?B:Sheproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondedcloselywiththescoreof“Home,SweetHome.”378.3.4CharacteristicsofimplicatureCalculability:hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonliteralmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc.Thegirlsaidtotheboy:“圣誕節(jié)到了！”Theboysaid:“又快放假了。”38Cancellability/defeasibility:

Ifthelinguisticorsituationalcontextschanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.A:Doyouwantsomecoffee? B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Idonotlikecoffee. B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Iwanttostayup. A:You’rethecreaminmycoffee. B:ButI’mafraidIdon’tquitelikecreaminmycoffee.

Characteristicsofimplicature39Non-detachability:implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform;implicaturesdonotvanishifthewordsofanutterancearechangedforsynonyms.A:Shallwegothecinematonight?B:There’llbeanexamtomorrow.I’lltakeanexamtomorrow.Isn’tthereanexamtomorrow?Characteristicsofimplicature40Non-conventionality:

implicatureisdifferentfromitsconventionalmeaningofwords.Itiscontext-dependent.Itvarieswithcontext.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了？B：上午還在 換草皮。A3: