現(xiàn)代語言本科現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)講義

PAGE應(yīng)考指導(dǎo)一、考試相關(guān)情況說明（一）課程基本情況《現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)》是英語專業(yè)本科生的必修課程之一。本課程的指定教材是全國高等教育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)委員會組編，何兆熊、梅德明主編：《現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)》，高等教育出版社1999年版。本教材系統(tǒng)介紹了現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)研究的分支及基本理論，從語言的角度分析了語言本身的性質(zhì)及與社會等各學(xué)科之間的關(guān)系，揭示了語言各個層面具有的特征。（二）題型與分值題型分值分值單項(xiàng)選擇題共10小題，每題2分20分填空題共10小題，每題1分10分是非題共10小題，每題2分20分名詞解釋題共10小題，每題3分30分論述題共2小題，每題10分20分小計(jì)42小題100分（三）重難點(diǎn)分布從知識點(diǎn)分布來看，本課程試題覆蓋了教材10章的全部內(nèi)容。從整體來看，教材10章內(nèi)容知識點(diǎn)分布不均勻，重點(diǎn)章節(jié)主要是第1章，第3章，第4章，第5章，第6章，第8章，第9章及第10章。第2章，第7章相對次之。（四）試題難度從試題難度來看，試題知識面涵蓋廣。對于重點(diǎn)知識每年都會重復(fù)出現(xiàn)，只是以不同的形式出現(xiàn)，每年考查的內(nèi)容較多。這一點(diǎn)大家要特別注意，不要以為以前考過的知識點(diǎn)就不會再考。雖然每年均有偏題出現(xiàn)，一般是屬于課程涉及的較細(xì)的內(nèi)容，但所占比例較低，屬于正常情況。總體而言，試題較為容易。（五）命題特點(diǎn)整體上看，出題順序基本上按照教材章節(jié)順序來出題，但并不是特別規(guī)律。此特點(diǎn)有助于我們答題時準(zhǔn)確把握考點(diǎn)所屬章節(jié)，提高答題正確率。從具體題型來看，單選題和填空題出題的特點(diǎn)為概念性知識點(diǎn)會?？迹欠穷}也集中于一些基本知識點(diǎn)的掌握。名詞解釋題，論述題沒有規(guī)律可循，因此，將書中出現(xiàn)的概念及相關(guān)基本理論全部掌握即可，千萬不要押題，否則容易失分。二、本課程的學(xué)習(xí)建議1.考生在開始學(xué)習(xí)這門課時，應(yīng)根據(jù)自己的情況制定一個切實(shí)可行的學(xué)習(xí)計(jì)劃，合理安排時間，通?？煞譃槎€階段：一是依據(jù)教材分章學(xué)習(xí)和做同步練習(xí)題階段；二是總復(fù)習(xí)階段，其復(fù)習(xí)技巧將在下面單獨(dú)介紹。2.緊扣大綱復(fù)習(xí)。最好能夠按照大綱中提煉的課程內(nèi)容將教材內(nèi)容簡化成自己的學(xué)習(xí)小冊子。也就是將大綱中課程內(nèi)容總分再充實(shí)一下，各知識點(diǎn)都豐富一下。比如說某個概念，要把定義或含義寫在這個概念之后。利于記憶。此外，要注意課程內(nèi)容中沒有的知識點(diǎn)，如果考核要求中有的話，有必要補(bǔ)充完整。3.注意總結(jié)教材中某些知識點(diǎn)，概念性知識點(diǎn)都要加以標(biāo)識，這些知識點(diǎn)都是最容易出題的。4.每復(fù)習(xí)完一遍教材做一套真題，這樣將近三年試題認(rèn)真做過，一邊閱讀教材一邊做題會檢查自己對所學(xué)知識的掌握情況，可以有針對性地指導(dǎo)自己的下一輪復(fù)習(xí)。三、各類題型的特點(diǎn)和答題技巧（一）單項(xiàng)選擇題單項(xiàng)選擇題通常是考核教材中的基本知識點(diǎn)，絕大部分知識點(diǎn)屬于識記和領(lǐng)會層次。因此，要想在單項(xiàng)選擇題部分拿高分，甚至拿滿分的話，就必須熟練地掌握教材內(nèi)容。從近三年的試題情況來看，這部分考查的知識點(diǎn)比較細(xì)，需要大家在仔細(xì)閱讀教材的過程中將一些特殊內(nèi)容標(biāo)識出來，專門予以背誦記憶。從難度來看，單選題的難度是所有題型中最容易的，應(yīng)該說只要熟讀教材，不會有不會做的題。（二）填空題填空題集中考查基本概念。難度在于對基本概念要熟記，便于很快相關(guān)概念。（三）是非題是非題也是圍繞基本概念進(jìn)行考察，內(nèi)容涵蓋面較廣，范圍可以是各章節(jié)中的基本概念。（四）名詞解釋題名詞解釋題基本上都是比較重要的概念，偶爾也會考到一些比較細(xì)的知識點(diǎn)。無論如何，只要在復(fù)習(xí)的過程中，將教材中的所有概念都一一列出，可以肯定的是名詞解釋題就不會丟分了。（五）論述題論述題是簡答題的拓展，要求能夠在回答要點(diǎn)的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行比較充分詳細(xì)的分析論證，絕對不能只答要點(diǎn)，不展開。那樣一定會扣分。內(nèi)容串講（Chapter1Introduction）一、本章復(fù)習(xí)建議本章是全書的緒論，通過本章節(jié)的學(xué)習(xí)可以宏觀了解語言學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)和研究的內(nèi)容以及一些基本概念，建議學(xué)員全面掌握,重點(diǎn)復(fù)習(xí)。二、本章重要知識點(diǎn)講解Whatislinguistics?DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.“Study”doesnotmean“l(fā)earn”but“investigate”or“examine.”Thestudyisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Theprocessoflinguisticstudy:Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremade.Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremade.Basedonthesegeneralizations,hypothesesareformulatedtoaccountforthesefacts.Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations.Alinguistictheoryisconstructedaboutwhatlanguageisandhowitworks.ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguisticsItdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy,incontrasttothosebranchesofstudywhichrelatelinguisticstotheresearchofotherareas.Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets,solinguistshavetoconcentrateononeaspectofitatatime.Thestudyofalltheseaspectsoflanguageformsthecoreoflinguistics.Thestudyofsoundusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofabranchoflinguisticscalledphonetics.Phonologyisabouthowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.Soundsarerepresentedbycertainsymbols.Thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.Thestudyofrulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.Thestudyofmeaningwasgraduallydevelopedandbecameknownassemantics.Whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.Theabovebranchesaresummarizedinthefollowingtable:(1)Intra-disciplinarydivisionsLanguageasasystemsoundPhoneticsPhonologystructureMorphologySyntaxmeaningSemanticsPragmatics(2)Interdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy:Thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguistics；Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology；Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofpracticalproblems.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics(inanarrowsensereferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.)Otherrelatedbranches--anthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,andcomputationallinguistics.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsprescriptivevs.descriptiveIfalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifitaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior,i.e.,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Linguisticstudyinthepastisnormallyknownas“grammar”.Andtoday,thegrammartaughttolearnersofalanguageisstillbasicallyprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.Linguistsbelievethatwhateveroccursinthelanguagepeopleuseshouldbedescribedandanalyzedintheirinvestigation.synchronicvs.diachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.speechandwritingSpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Traditionalgrammarianstendedtoover-emphasizetheimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Butmodernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenformoflanguage,whichisconsideredasmorebasicthatthewrittenformforanumberofreasons:First,inanyhumansocietyweknowof,speechprecedeswriting.Second,therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform.Third,intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.langueandparoleLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebySaussureinordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Inhisopinion,whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Helooksatlanguagefromasociologicalpointofview.langueparoleconventionsandrulesusershavetoconcreteuseofconventionsandabidebytheapplicationoftherulesabstractconcrete(notthelanguagepeopleactualuse)(refertotheoccurringlanguageevent)relativelystable variesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituationcompetenceandperformanceThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbyChomsky.Hethinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperformance.Helooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformanceastheactualrealizationoftheknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.AccordingtoChomsky,aspeakerhasinternalizedasetofrulesabouthislanguage,thisenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperformance.Whatislanguage?DefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Firstofall,languageisasystemSecond,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthethingweusetowritewith.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.Forth,theterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,verydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemotherformsoflifepossess.Designfeatures（識別特征）Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.ArbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Languageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.Productivitylanguageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences.Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.Dualitylanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.Displacementlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.CulturaltransmissionThoughweareallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned,ratherthanbyinstinct內(nèi)容串講（Chapter2Phonology）一、本章復(fù)習(xí)建議本章學(xué)習(xí)的中心內(nèi)容是語音，包括語音學(xué)和音系學(xué)兩大部分。要求對英語的元音和輔音的發(fā)音方式和特點(diǎn)能進(jìn)行描述。能分清寬式音標(biāo)和嚴(yán)式音標(biāo)的區(qū)別。另外，對音系學(xué)中的一些最基本概念如音位、音位對立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對立體等有所了解。能對序列規(guī)則、同化規(guī)則、對重音、語調(diào)、聲調(diào)等幾種超切分音系特征的表意作用能舉例說明。二、本章重要知識點(diǎn)講解1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage（語言的聲音媒介）Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Manylanguagesintheworldtodayarebothwrittenandspoken.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Thenaturalorprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissoundorsomeobviouslyreasons.Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedwithonlythosesoundsthatareproducedbythehumanspeechorgansinsofarastheyhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.2.Phonetics2.1Whatisphonetics?Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Therearethreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)聲語音學(xué))：Itisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.Acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語音學(xué)）:Itisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)）:Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.2.2OrgansofspeechThepharyngealcavity（咽腔）——thethroatTheoralcavity（口腔）——themouthThenasalcavity（鼻腔）——thenoseTheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynxbeforeitreachesanyofthecavities.2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptionsIPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabetHereisalistofthesymbolstheyuseandthewordsthatcontainthesoundsrepresentedbythesesymbols:Thevowels(monophthongsanddiphthongs)i:beatipiteibaya:barneletaibuy?:born?pat?iboyu:moon?putt?ugo?:burn?hotaunowuputi?peer?anothere?pairu?poorTheconsonantsppenffallhhowbbadvvoicemmantteaθthinnnoddidethen?longkcatssollegggamezzoorredt?chain?shipjyesd?Jane?measurewwetTherearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds：Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly,calledbroadtranscription.Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics,callednarrowtranscription.Assomespeechsoundsproduceddifferonlyinsomedetailedaspects,theIPAprovidesitsuserswithasetofsymbolscalleddiacritics,whichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionthanthelettersalonemakepossible.Forexample,thetwowordspitandcup.Thewordpitistranscribedas[phit],whilecupistranscribedas[k?p?].2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsClassificationofEnglishconsonantsIntermsofmannerofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:Stoporplosive（爆破音）:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative（摩擦音）:[f][v][s][z][θ][e][?][?][h]Affricate（塞擦音）:[t?][d?]Liquid（流音）:[l][r]Nasal（鼻音）:[m][n][?]Glide（滑因）:[w][j]Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:Bilabial（雙唇音）[p][b][m][w]Labiodental（唇齒音）[f][v]Dental（齒音）:[θ][e]Alveolar（齒齦音）:[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]Palatal（硬腭因）:[?][?][t?][d?][j]Velar（軟腭音）:[k][g][?]Glottal（喉音）:[h]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowelsClassifyaccordingtothepositionofthetongueinthemouth:Frontvowel:[i:][i][e][?][a]Centralvowel:[?:][?][?]Backvowel:[u:][u][?:][?][a:]Classifyaccordingtotheopennessofthemonth:Closevowel:[i:][i][u:][u]Semi-closevowel:[e][?:]Semi-openvowel:[?][?:]Openvowel:[?][a][?][?][a:]Classifyaccordingtotheshapeofthelips:Unroundedvowel:[i:][i][e][?][a][?:][?][?][a:]Roundedvowel:[u:][u][?:][?]Classifyaccordingtothelengthofthevowels:Longvowel:[i:][?:][a:][u:][?:]Shortvowel:[i][e][?][a][?][?][u][?]InEnglishtherearealsoanumberofdiphthongsincluding[ei][ai][?u][au][?i][i?][e?][u?]Phonology3.1PhonologyandphoneticsBothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound;itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Conventionallyphonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,suchas[p][t];andphonemesinslashes,suchas/p//t/.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,[p]inthetwowordspitandcupas[phit]and[k?p?].3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theformeriscalledphonemiccontrast（音位對立）,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.Forexample,wecanseethat[ph]and[b]contrasteachotherininitialposition,asinpinandbin.Thenwefindthattheyalsocontrastinfinalposition,asinropeandrobe.Sowecometotheconclusionthat/p/and/b/canoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,thereforetheyareinphonemiccontrast.Thelatteriscalledcomplementarydistribution（互補(bǔ)分布）;theyaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.Forexample,/p/inpeak[phi:k]andinspeak[spi:k];Anotherexampleisthattheclear[l]andthedark[?]inlead[li:d]andillin[i?].Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs（最小對立體）.Wecanalsoexplainitaswhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,suchas[pen]and[ben].3.4SomerulesinphonologySequentialrules（序列規(guī)則）Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.e.g.rude,last,leapIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:thefirstphonemustbe/s/，thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.e.g.strict,splendid,springTheaffricates[t?][d?]andthesibilants[s][z][?][?]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilant.e.g.thepluralformofthewordteachisteaches[ti:t?iz].Therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.WhatisnotpermissibleinEnglishmightnotbepermissibleinanotherlanguage.Assimilationrules（同化規(guī)則）Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.e.g.the[i:]soundinbean/green.Withinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit,e.g.correct–incorrect.Thesoundassimilationisactuallyreflectedinthespellinginmostcases.Insteadofinpossible,thenegativeformofpossibleisimpossible,asthe[n]soundisassimilatedto[m].Deletionrule（省略規(guī)則）Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Forexample,deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Inthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonationThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.Stress（重音）Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Whenwesaythatacertainsyllableofawordisstressed,wemeanthatthesyllableispronouncedwithgreaterforcethantheotherorothers.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishedmeaning.Ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Thenounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable.Forexample:E.g.:′importn.-im′portv.′increasen-in′creasev.′progressn.-pro′gressv.′insultn.-in′sultv.′convictn.-con′victv.′rebeln.-re′belv.′producen.-pro′ducev.′combinen.-com′binev.′permitn.-per′mitv.′pervertn.-per′vertv.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,andthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:a′green,house—abuildingwithglassroofandsidesandoftenformofheating,usedforgrowingplantswhichneedheat,lightandfreedomfromwindsa′green′house—ahousewhichisgreenincolora′hot,dog—akindoffastfoodwithabreadrollandasausagea′hot′dog—adogwhichishot=3\*ROMANIII.Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationof–ingformsandnounsAlthoughidenticalinform,allthese–ing+nouncombinationsareoftwotypes.Foronetype,the–ingformservesasamodifierofthenoun.Forexample,adining-roomisaroomwherereadingpeoplecandine,readingglassesareglassespeoplewearwhenreading.Theseareactuallycompoundnouns.Asarule,inpronouncingthistypeof–ing+nouncombinationsasinpronouncingothercompoundwords,thewordstressalwaysfallsonthefirstelement;thesecondelementreceivessecondarystress:′dining-,room,′reading,glasses,′sewing,machine.Fortheothertypeof–ing+nouncombinations,thenounisactuallythedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe–ingform.Forexample,sleepingbabymeansababywhoissleeping,andswimmingfishisafishthatisswimming.Forthesecombinations,theprimarystressdoesnotfallonthefirstelement,butontheheadnoun,andthe–ingformreceivessecondarystress:sleeping′baby,,swimming′fish.Tone（聲調(diào)）Englishisnotatonelanguage,Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Intonation（語調(diào)）Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.內(nèi)容串講（Chapter3Morphology）一、本章復(fù)習(xí)建議形態(tài)學(xué)研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則。本章要求對構(gòu)成單詞的最小意義單位語素有所了解，包括語素的類型、常見詞根和詞綴的意義，并通過對詞素的學(xué)習(xí)加強(qiáng)對英語派生詞和復(fù)合詞的理解和運(yùn)用能力。二、本章重要知識點(diǎn)講解1.DefinitionMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.(Justastheformationofsentencesisgovernedbyrules,soisthestructureofwords.)InflectionalmorphologyMorphologyDerivationalmorphologyInflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections.Derivationalmorphologyisaboutthestudyofword-formation.MorphemeMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageForexample，theword:boyish“boy”+“-ish”.Structurallyspeaking,theword“boyish”consistsoftwomeaningfulcomponentswhichcan’tbeanalyzedanyfurther,i.e.,“boy”and“-ish”.Wecallthesemeaningfulcomponentsatthelowestlevelofaword“morphemes”.Buttheythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed.Somorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.2.2TypesofmorphemesFreemorphemesHowmanydifferenttypesofmorphemesarethere?Morphemescanbesub-classifiedintodifferenttypes,dependingonwhatcriteriayouattempttofollow.FirstlookatsomemorewordsinEnglishandseehowtheycanbedividedintomorphemes.helper—help-ertable—tableroommate—room-matequicken—quick-enfrightening—fright-en-ingdisabled—dis-able-edwarmer—warm-erbiology—bio-logysoliloquy—soli-loquyassistant—assist-antcarelessly—care-less-lysymphony—sym-phonyWecanidentifysomemorphemesaswords,suchashelp,table,room,mate,quick,fright,able,warm,assist,care.Thesewordscontainonlyonemorpheme;theyarecalledfreemorpheme,whichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.BoundmorphemesTherestofmorphemeswehavespecifiedintheaboveword-listsuchas–er,-en,-dis,bio-,-less,-symarecalledboundmorphemes.Boundmorphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.Roots:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Inthewordinternationalism,aftertheremovalofinter-,-al,and–ism,theleftpartistherootnation.Apparently,allwordscontainarootmorpheme.Lookatsomewordsasfollows:Geology:“geo-”+“-ology”;Television:“tele-”+“-vision”;“geo-”,“-ology”,“tele-”,“-vision”，allofthemareroots.Affixes:affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem),soaffixisnaturallybound.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.Theonesthathavebeenretainedinclude:-(e)s,-(e)d,-ing,-er,-est,-‘s.Thenhowaboutthefollowingexamples:teachesplayedraining(twomorphemes),herethinkabout“-es”,“-ed”,“-ing”.Whyallofthemaremorphemes?(Theyaremeaningful,butthemeaningisgrammatical.)Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself,e.g.Tolerateroot“toler-”+affix“-ate”Quicklyfreemorpheme“quick”+affix“-ly”Accordingtoitspositioninthenewword,affixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordandsuffixesattheend.Lookatsomeexamples:dis-:dislikedisagreediscontinueun-:uneasyunconsciousunfavorableunlockin-:incorrectinconvenientPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonot