普通語言學(xué)(紅皮書)-知識(shí)點(diǎn)-普通語言學(xué)教學(xué)課件

ChapterOne:Introduction1.LinguisticsandEnglishlinguistics1)Asthenamesuggests,linguisticsisthestudyoflanguageingeneralandofparticularlanguages,theirstructure,grammar,history,culture,andsoon.2)AccordingtoJohnLyons〔約翰·萊昂斯〕，linguisticsisdividedintotypes:generallinguistics〔普通語言學(xué)〕anddescriptivelinguistics(描述語言學(xué)).A.Differences:i.Generallinguisticsdealswithlanguageingeneral,orthewholehumanlanguage.Descriptivelinguisticsstudiesparticularlanguages.ii.Generallinguisticsaimsatdevelopingatheorythatdescribestherulesofhumanlanguageingeneral.DescriptivelinguisticsattemptstoestablishmodelsthatdescribetherulesofparticularlanguageslikeChinese,German,English,etc.B.Relationship:Theyexplicitlyorimplicitlydependoneachother.i.Ontheonehand,generallinguisticsprovidesdescriptivelinguisticswithageneralframeworkinwhichaparticularlanguagecanbeanalyzedanddescribed.ii.Ontheotherhand,thedescriptionsofparticularlanguages,inturn,supplyempiricalevidencewhichmayconfirmorrefutethemodel(s)putforwardbygenerallinguists.Thus,generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguisticsarecomplementarytoeachother.3)Englishlinguisticsisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.Itdealswithaparticularlanguage---English,forthepurposeofconstructingamodeltorepresenttheunconsciouslinguisticknowledgepossessedbyafluentEnglishspeaker.Actuallythestudyofanyparticularlanguageisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.2.Thenatureoflanguage(s)Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbols,whichiscreative,double-structuredandchangeable.1)Languageisasystem.i.Everylanguageconsistsofasetofrules,includingphonologicalrules,morphologicalrules,syntacticrules,semanticrules,grammaticalrules,andsoon.Theserulesunderliepeople'sactualspeechorwriting.ii.IndeSaussure's〔索緒爾〕term,thesystemoflanguageiscalledlangue〔語言體系〕andthespeaker'sspeechiscalledparole(言語).iii.AccordingtoChomsky〔喬姆斯基〕,competence〔語言知識(shí)〕is"thespeaker-hearer'sknowledgeofhislanguage"，whileperformance〔言語行為〕is"theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations".iv.Langueorcompetenceisabstractandnotdirectlyobserved,whileparoleorperformanceisconcreteanddirectlyobservable.Ithastotakeinadefinitetimeandplace,andinaparticularsituation.2)Languageissymbolic.i.Whatisasymbol?Howmanypartsdoesasymbolconsistof?Asymbolisessentiallymadeupoftwoparts:aconcreteobjectorform,andthemeaningortheideathatitconveys.ii.Thereareafewwordswhichcannotbeclassifiedassymbolssuchasthe,a,an,etc.3)Languageisasystemofvocalsymbols.i.Twotypes:visualsymbols,auditorysymbolsii.Notallsoundsproducedbyhumanspeechorgansarelinguisticsymbols.Forexample,sneezes,coughsandsoonusuallydonothavesymbolicvalue.iii.Languageisprimarilyspeech,andnotthewrittenform.Threereasons:A.Biologicallyspeaking,childrenbegintolearntospeakmuchearlierthantolearntoreadandwrite.B.Functionallyspeaking,thespokenformisusedmorefrequentlythanthewrittenforminourdailylife.C.Historicallyspeaking,allhumanlanguageswerespokenbeforetheywerewrittenandtherearestillmanylanguagesintheworldtodaywhichhavenotbeenwrittendown.4)Languageisarbitrary.i.Therelationshipbetweenthesoundsandtheirmeaningisarbitrary.ii.Bysayinglanguageisarbitrary,wemeanthatwecannotgiveareasonwhyacertainlinguisticformshouldrepresentacertainmeaningandwhyacertainmeaningshouldberepresentedbyacertainform.iii.Itdoesnotimplythatanyindividualspeakerhasthefreedomtodeterminethepronunciationofaword.5)Languageiscreative.i.Everylanguagecontainsaninfinitenumberofsentences,which,however,aregeneratedbyasmallsetofrulesandafinitesetofwords.ii.Thelengthofasentencehasnolimitintheory.6)Languageisdouble-structured.Twolevels:grammatically---meaningfulandsound---meaningless7)Languageischangeable.Languagehaschangesinthreesystems:soundsystem,lexicalsystemandgrammaticalsystem.3.Scientificmethod3.0Definition:Generallyspeaking,ascientificmethodistheprocedureadoptedbyscientistsinconductingtheirinvestigationandestablishingtheirconclusion.3.1ScientificmethodingeneralFourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions3.2ScientificmethodinlinguisticsFourstages:gatherdata,constructatentativerule,examinethetentativerule,finalizetheruleAnimportantprinciple---objectivity3.2.1ObjectivityThreecommonlinguisticbiasesA.Somelanguagesareprimitiveandsomelanguagesareadvanced.B.Onlythestandardvarietyisthepureformofalanguage.C.Changeisnotnaturalforlivinglanguagesandsuchachangeisasignofcorruptionanddecay.3.2.2SourcesofdataA.Collectingdataistheinitialworkforanylinguisticdescription.B.Ifthelinguistdescribesalanguagethathedoesnotknowhimself,hemayfindasuitablenativespeakerofthatlanguageashisinformant〔〔為語言學(xué)調(diào)查〕提供資料的本地人〕，whoisusuallyabilingual.3.2.3RulesconstructionA.Theessentialtaskoflinguisticdescriptionistoconstructruleswhichmayaccountforanativespeaker'simplicitknowledgeaboutthelanguage.B.Howdoesalinguistconstructarule?Step1:thelinguiststartswithcollectingdata.Step2:basedonthedatacollected,hemayconstructaverysimpleruleasatentativeversion.Step3:thenheexaminesthetentativeruleagainstfurtherdata.Iftheadditionaldatadonotagreewithit,hehastomodifyit.Step4:hekeepsontestingtheruleand,accordingly,revisingtheruleuntiltherulecanaccountforalltherelevantdatacollected.Attention:verylikely,thedatagatheredarenotcomplete.Thus,theruleformedisopentofurthermodifications.4.Thegoaloflinguistics4.0Definition:thegoaloflinguisticsistoestablishamodelofanativespeaker'scompetence.4.1Modeli.Therearetwokindsofmodels:A.aphysicalorliteralmodel---itcanbeusedtoinvestigatethefunctionandconstructionoftherealobject.B.aconceptualortheoreticalmodel---itcanbeusedtoexaminesomethingunobservablesuchasthenatureofeconomy.Whichtypedoesamodelofthecompetenceofanativespeakerbelongto?---Thelatter.ii.Twofeaturesofanadequatemodelofcompetence:explicitness〔明確性〕andgenerativeness〔生成性〕A.Bysayingamodelisexplicit,wemeanthattherulesofthelanguagethemodelcontainsareclearlydefined.B.Bysayingamodelisgenerative,wemeanthatwecanuseafinitesetofrulestogenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences.4.2CompetenceAnativespeakerhasfourtypesoflinguisticknowledge:phonologicalknowledge〔音位知識(shí)〕,morphologicalknowledge〔詞法知識(shí)〕,syntacticknowledge〔句法知識(shí)〕andsemanticknowledge〔語義知識(shí)〕i.Phonologicalknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofhislanguage.ii.Morphologicalknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionabouthowawordisformed.iii.Syntacticknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.iv.Semanticknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionaboutthemeaningoflanguage.5.Sub-branchesoflinguistics1)Phonetics〔語音學(xué)〕isthestudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.Itdealswithquestionslikehowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived,howEnglishsoundsareclassifiedanddescribed.2)Phonology〔音系學(xué)〕isthesciencethatdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguage.3)Morphology〔詞法、形態(tài)學(xué)〕dealswithwordformationandtheinternalstructureofwords.4)Syntax〔句法〕isconcernedwithhowwordsarecombinedtoformphrasesandhowphrasesarecombinedbyrulestoformsentences.5)Semantics〔語義學(xué)〕isthestudyofthemeaningofwordsandsentences6.Saussure:TheFatherofModernLinguistics1)Whendidmodernlinguisticsstart?---Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury.2)Whatarethemostinfluentialschoolsofmodernlinguistics?---Structurallinguistics〔結(jié)構(gòu)語言學(xué)〕andTransformational-generativeGrammar(TGGrammar)〔轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法〕3)Whoiscommonlyacknowledgedasthefatherofmodernlinguistics?---FerdinanddeSaussure4)Whyisheregardedasthefounderofmodernlinguistics?Answer:1。TheobviousreasonisthatthebookunderhisnameACourseinGeneralLinguistics〔《普通語言學(xué)教程》〕isthefirstrealessayonlinguistictheory.2。Inthisbook,quiteafewtheoreticaldistinctionsintroducedhavebecomefoundationsoflinguisticstudyandexertedgreatinfluenceonthelaterdevelopmentoflinguistics.3．Chiefamongthemarethedistinctionsbetweensynchronicanddiachronic,syntagmaticandparadigmatic,langueandparole.5)Explainthefollowingpairsofterms:(1)synchronicstudy〔共時(shí)研究〕anddiachronicstudy〔歷時(shí)研究〕A.Thesynchronic(ordescriptive)studyofalanguageisconcernedwitha"state"ofalanguageataparticularpointoftime.B.Thediachronicstudyofalanguageisconcernedwiththehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguage(orlanguages)throughtime.(2)Syntaghmaticrelation〔橫向關(guān)系〕andparadigmaticrelation〔縱向關(guān)系〕A.Asyntaghmaticrelationreferstothesequentialcharacteristicofspeech.Itisthelinearorderingoflinguisticelementswithinasentence.B.Aparadigmaticrelationisarelationbetweenalinguisticelementinanutteranceandlinguisticelementsoutsidethatutterance.(3)langueandparoleA.Languereferstotheabstractsystemofalanguage.Itisnotdirectlyobservable.B.Parolereferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginadefinitetime,placeandsituation.C.Langueunderliesparoleandparole,inturn,isamanifestationoflangue.D.Saussurefurtherclaimedthatlinguisticsshouldinvestigatetheabstractsystemofalanguageratherthanconcreteactsofspeaking.LinguisticsChapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticsWhatislanguage?DifferentdefinitionsoflanguageLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.FeaturesofhumanlanguageCreativityLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.DualityLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.ArbitrarinessTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.DisplacementThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.CulturaltransmissionCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.InterchangeabilityAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.ReflexivityHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functionsTheideationalfunctionToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.TheinterpersonalfunctionTogetalonginacommunity.ThetextualfunctionToformatext.TypesoflanguageGeneticclassificationTypologicalclassificationAnalyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnameseSyntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGermanAgglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishThemythoflanguage–languageoriginTheBiblicalaccountLanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.Thebow-wowtheoryLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.Thepooh-poohtheoryLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.Theyo-he-hotheoryLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.TheevolutiontheoryLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage. Observing&questioning Formulatinghypotheses Verifyingthehypotheses ProposingatheoryBranchesoflinguisticsInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsFeaturesoflinguisticsDescriptiveChapterTwoPhonetics0.Introduction0.1Definition:Phoneticsstudiesspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.EnglishphoneticsdealswithallsoundsavailableintheEnglishlanguage.0.2Threesub-branches:A.Articulatoryphonetics〔發(fā)音語音學(xué)〕isconcernedwithhowasoundisproducedbythevocalorgans.B.Acousticphonetics〔聲學(xué)語音學(xué)〕dealswithhowasoundistransmittedfromthespeaker'smouthtothelistener'sears.C.Auditoryphonetics〔聽覺語音學(xué)〕investigateshowasoundisperceivedbythelistener.Thesesub-branchesarerelatedtotheproduction,transmissionandreceptionofasoundrespectively.1.Thespeechorgans(articulators)i.發(fā)音器官名稱：(1)lips〔唇〕〔theupperlipandthelowerlip),(2)teeth(齒)〔theupperteethandthelowerteeth〕,(3)teeth-ridge/alveolarridge(齒齦)，(4)hardpalate(硬腭)，(5)softpalate/velum〔軟腭〕，(6)uvula〔小舌〕，(7)tipoftongue〔舌尖〕，(8)bladeoftongue〔舌面〕，(9)backoftongue〔舌根〕，(10)pharynx(咽)，(11)epiglottis〔會(huì)厭〕，(12)foodpassage(食道)，(13)vocalcords(聲帶)ii.Whatisvocaltract?Thespeechorgansabovethelarynx〔喉〕formthevocaltract〔發(fā)音系統(tǒng)).iii.Whatarethetwopartsofthevocaltract?oralcavity〔口腔〕，nasalcavity〔鼻腔〕2.Consonantsandvowels2.0ConceptsA.Whatisaconsonant?Aconsonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairstreamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblockedorwheretheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.Examples:[p],[b],[l],[f],[v]B.Whatisavowel?Avowelisaspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,andwhichispronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.2.1TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetA.IsthespellingofwordsareliablemeanstodescribeEnglishsounds?Whyorwhynot?Answer:No.Becausesometimesasinglelettermayrepresentdifferentsounds.Forexample,theletterarepresentsfivedifferentvowelsinthewordsbelow:Cat，hate，father，wall，sofaSometimes,differentlettersorcombinationsoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound.Forexample,thebold-facedlettersarepronouncedasasinglevowelinthefollowingwords:Feet，meat，seize，piece，key，weThus,wecannotdependonthespellingofwordstodescribethesoundsofEnglish.B.Whatmeanscanbeusedforthispurpose?Answer:In1889,theInternationalPhoneticAssociationdevelopedtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Itisasystemofsymbolswhichcanrepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.Theadvantageofthissystemisthatwithinthesystem,onesymbolrepresentsonesoundandeverysymbolhasaconsistentvalue.C.HowmanysymbolsintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetstandforconsonantsandhowmanyforvowels?Answer:Accordingtotherevisedformin1972,therearealtogether72symbolsforconsonantsand25forvowels.2.2DescribingtheEnglishConsonantsTheEnglishconsonantsaredescribedaccordingtofourdimensionswhichinclude:A.thepositionofthesoftpalateB.thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibrationC.theplaceofarticulationD.themannerofarticulation(1)Thepositionofthesoftpalate〔參見課本33頁圖〕：Accordingtothepositionofthesoftpalate,theEnglishconsonantscanbedividedintotwogroups:oralsounds,nasalsounds.Whenthesoftpalateisraisedagainstthebackofthethroat,thenasalpassageisblockedandtheairflowisforcedtogoentirelythroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledoralsounds.Whenthesoftpalateislowered,thenasalpassageisopenandtheairflowcangothroughthenoseaswellasthemouth.Suchsoundsarecallednasalsounds.(2)Thepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibrationi.Wherearevocalcords?Vocalcordsareinsidethelarynx(喉).ii.Whatisglottis?Thespacebetweenthevocalcordsiscalledtheglottis.iii.Howareconsonantsclassifiedaccordingtothepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration?Theyareclassifiedintovoicelesssoundsandvoicedsounds.A.Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairstreamisnotblockedattheglottisanditpassesfreelyintothevocaltractwithoutvocal-cordvibration.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledvoicelesssounds.B.Whenthevocalcordsarenearlytouchingeachotherbutnotcompletelyclosed,theairstreampassingthroughtheglottishastocausevibration.Thesoundsmadeinthiswayarecalledvoicedsounds.(3)Placeofarticulationi.Definition:Thelocation,insidethemouth,atwhichthecontacttakesplace,iscalledtheplaceofarticulation.ii.Classification〔參見課本39頁表格〕：1)bilabials(雙唇音):Thesoundsmadebybothlipsarecalledbilabials.4bilabials:[p][b][m][w]2)labiodentals(唇齒音):Thesoundsproducedbythecontactbetweentheupperteethandlowerliparecalledlabiodentals.2labiodentals:[f][v]3)dentals(interdentals)(舌齒音):thesoundsmadewiththetipofthetonguebehindtheupperfrontteethorwiththetonguetipbetweentheupperandlowerteetharecalleddentals.2dentals:[W][T]4)alveolars(齒齦音):Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthetiporthebladeofthetonguetothealveolarridgearecalledalveolars.6alveolars:[s][z][t][d][l][n]5)post-alveolars(齒齦后音):Thesoundsformedbybringingthetipofthetonguetotherearpartofthealveolarridgearecalledpost-alveolars.3post-alveolars:[r][tr][dr]6)alveo-palatals(齒齦硬腭音):Thesoundsproducedwiththetongueattheveryfrontofthehardpalate,nearthealveolarridge,arecalledalveo-palatals.4alveo-palatals:[F][V][tF][dV]7)palatals(硬腭音):Thesoundsmadebybringingthefrontofthetonguetothehardpalatearecalledpalatals.3palatals:[j][c][J]8)velars(軟腭音):Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetothesoftpalatearecalledvelars.3velars:[^][k][g]9)glottals(聲門音):Thesearesoundsthatareproducedwithouttheactiveuseofthetongueandotherpartsofthemouth.Thereareglottals.Oneis[h].Itisproducedwhenthevocalcordsarehalf-openandtheairstreamgoesthroughtheglottiswithfriction.Theotheris[?].Itismadewhenthevocalcordsaretightlyclosedverybrieflyandthenreleased.2glottals:[h][?]inwritten[`ri?n](4)Mannerofarticulation〔參見課本39頁表格〕：Accordingtomannerofarticulation,consonantsaredividedintofivegroups:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,glides.1)stops(閉止音)(包括plosives爆破音，nasals鼻腔音)：threestages:A.closurestage-thearticulatorscomeintocontactwitheachothertoformacompleteclosure.B.holdstage-theairpressurebuildsupbehindtheclosure.C.releasestage-thearticulatorsaresuddenlyseparatedandtheairstreamgoesoutwithaplosion.6plosives:[p][b][t][d][k][g]3nasals:[m][n][9]2)fricatives(摩擦音):Theyaresoundsthatareproducedbybringingtwoarticulatorsveryclosewithoutacompleteclosuresothattheairstreammovesbetweenthemwithaudiblefriction.9fricatives:[f][v][W][T][s][z][F][V][h]3)affricates(破擦音):Sometimestwoarticulatorsarebroughttogethertoformacompleteclosurebutnotfollowedbyasuddenreleaselikeastop,ratherbyaslowreleasewithaudiblefriction.Soundsproducedinthiswayarecalledaffricates.4affricates:[tr][dr][tF][dV]4)liquids(流音):Liquidsareproducedwithsomeobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouthbutnotenoughtocausefriction.[l]isalateralliquid.[r]isacentralliquid.5)glides(滑音、延音):Glidesareproducedwhentwoarticulatorsareclosetoeachother,butnotclosetosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamiscreated.Theyaretraditionallycalledsemi-vowels.2glides:[j][w]2.3DescribingtheEnglishvowels(1)VelumstateAccordingtothestateofthevelum,vowelsareclassifiedintotwogroups:oralvowelsandnasalvowels.Vowelscanalsobeproducedwitharaisedvelumoraloweredvelum.Whenthevelumisloweredtopermittheairstreamtoflowthroughthemouthaswellasthenose,nasalvowelsaremade.InEnglish,nasalvowelsoccuronlybeforenasalconsonants,andoralvowelsbeforeoralconsonantsorattheendofwords.(2)Tongueposition〔參見課本40頁圖表〕：Itiscustomarytodescribethetonguepositionintermsoftwodimensions:firstly,verticaldistancebetweentheuppersurfaceofthetongueandthepalate;secondly,thepartofthetongue,betweenfrontandback,whichisraisedhighest.Simplyspeaking,thepositionofthetongueisdescribedashigh-mid-lowtoindicatethedegreeoftheheighttowhichthetongueisraised,andasfront-central-backtospecifythepartofthetonguewhichisinvolved.(3)LiproundingIntermsoftheshapeofthelips,Englishvowelsareclassifiedintoroundedvowels〔圓唇元音〕andunroundedvowels(不圓唇元音).InEnglish,allthebackvowelsexcept[a:]areroundedvowels.(4)Diphthongs〔雙元音〕，purevowels/simplevowels/monophthongs〔單元音〕Definition:Diphthongsarevowelsthatconsistofamovementorglidefromonevoweltoanother.Classification:InEnglish,thereare8diphthongs.Thecenteringdiphthongsaremadebyaglidetowardsacentralvowel[E].Theclosingdiphthongsareproducedbyamovementfromarelativelylowervoweltoahighervowel.參見課本42頁圖表。(5)Triphthongs〔三合元音〕Definition:Triphthongsareproducedbyaglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathirdonerapidlyandcontinuously.InEnglish,thereare5triphthongs.Somelinguistsdescribethemasconsistingofaclosingdiphthong+[E].3.PhoneticfeaturesDefinitionoffeaturespecification:aphoneticfeaturetogetherwithitsvalue〔音值〕iscalledafeaturespecification.1)ThemostcommonfeaturesusedforEnglishconsonants:[nasal]〔鼻音的〕，[voiced]〔濁音的〕，[consonantal]〔輔音的〕，[vocalic]〔元音的〕，[continuant]〔連續(xù)音的〕，[anterior]〔前部音的〕，[coronal]〔舌面音的〕and[aspirated]〔送氣音的〕Forexample:

[p][v][t][z][tr][k][m][n][h][r][l][w][j][nasal][voiced][consonantal][vocalic][continuant][anterior][coronal][aspirated]2)ThemostcommonfeaturesusedforEnglishvowels:[high],[low],[front],[back],[rounded],[tense]〔緊元音的〕Forexample:

[i:][e][u:][a:][high][low][front][back][rounded][tense]3)Whatiscalledalaxvowel?Avowelmarkedwith[-tense]iscalledalaxvowel.Exercises1.Whathumanorgansabovethelarynxareinvolvedinsoundproduction?KEY:Thehumanorgansabovethelarynxthatareinvolvedinsoundproductionarethefollowing:2.Whatisaconsonantandwhatisavowel?KEY:Aconsonantisaspeechsound.Itisproducedwhentheairstreamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblocked,partiallyblockedortheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithanaudiblefriction.Avowelisalsoaspeechsound.Itisformedwhentheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,anditisusuallypronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.3.WhydoweneedtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabettodescribeEnglishsounds?KEY:ThereasonisthatthespellingofEnglishwordsisnotareliablemeanstorecordthesounds.Sometimesasinglelettermayrepresentdifferentsounds,e.g.theletterorepresentsdifferentvowelsinthefollowingwords:potsolewomenoccasioncomewolfmoveSometimesdifferentlettersorcombinationsoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound,e.g.thebold-facedlettersarepronouncedasasinglevowelinthewordsbelow:horsesawboughttalkdoorfourbeforeButtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetcanrecordthesoundsaccuratelyandpreciselybecauseinthissystem.,onesymbolrepresentsonlyonesoundandonesoundisrepresentedbyonlyonesymbol.4.HowdoweclassifyEnglishconsonantsandvowelsinatraditionalway?KEY:Traditionally,Englishconsonantsareclassifiedaccordingtofourdimensions:(1)thepositionofthesoftpalate;(2)thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration;(3)theplaceofarticulation;(4)themannerofarticulation.Dependingonwhetherthevelumisraisedorlowered,theEnglishconsonantsareeitheroralsornasals.Accordingtothepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration,theyareeithervoicedorvoiceless.Intermsoftheplaceofarticulation,theyareclassifiedasbilabials,labiodentals,interdentals,alvelars,post-alveolars,alveo-palatals,palatals,velarsandglottals.Accordingtothemannerofarticulation,theyaregroupedintoplosives,nasals,frictives,affricates,liquidsandglides.TheEnglishvowelsaretraditionallyclassifiedaccordingtothefollowingthreefactors:(1)thestateofthevelum;(2)thepositionofthetongue;(3)theshapeofthelips.Thevowelsareoraloneswhentheyareproducedwitharaisedvelum.Thevowelsarenasaloneswhentheyareproducedwithaloweredvelum.Theyareeitherfront,centralorbackonesdependingonwhatpartofthetongueisraisedtowardsthepalate.Theyareeitherhigh,midorlowonesaccordingtotheheighttowhichthetongueisraised.Theyareeitherroundedorunroundeddependingontheshapeofthelips.5.HowdowedescribeandclassifyEnglishsoundsintermsoffeaturespecifications?KEY:WhenanEnglishsoundisdescribedasasetoffeaturespecifications,itisspecifiedbyalistof