新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程戴偉棟共36

新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)(yīnɡyǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程戴偉棟版第1章導(dǎo)言(dǎoyán)本章(běnzhānɡ)要點(diǎn)：1.Thedefinitionandmainbranchesoflinguisticsstudy語(yǔ)言學(xué)的定義和研究范圍2.ImportantdistinctioninLinguistic語(yǔ)言學(xué)的一些重要區(qū)分3.Thedefinitionandthedesignfeaturesoflanguage語(yǔ)言的定義和識(shí)別特征4.Functionoflanguage語(yǔ)言的功能本章考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)言學(xué)考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)言學(xué)的定義，語(yǔ)言學(xué)中幾組重要的區(qū)別，每組兩個(gè)概念的含義、區(qū)分及其意義；普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)的主要分支及各自研究范疇；宏觀語(yǔ)言及應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的主要扥只及各自的研究范疇。語(yǔ)言的考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)言的定義；語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征（任意性，能產(chǎn)性，二重性，移位性，文化傳遞性）；語(yǔ)言的功能1,Thedefinitionoflinguistics語(yǔ)言的定義：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(basedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetogeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure)2.Thescopeoflinguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)的范圍A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）:thestudyofthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.Phonology（音系學(xué)）:thestudyofhowsoundsputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.(語(yǔ)音分布和排列(páiliè)的規(guī)則及音節(jié)的形式)Morphology（形態(tài)學(xué)）:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.Syntax（句法學(xué)(fǎxué)）:thestudyofrulesinthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguage.Semantics（語(yǔ)義學(xué)）:thestudyofmeaning.Pragmatics（語(yǔ)用學(xué)）:thestudyofthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics:thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwiththesocietyformthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageanditsrelationwithpsychology.Appliedlinguistics:thestudyofapplicationoflanguagetothesolutionofpracticalproblems.Narrowlyitistheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的重要(zhòngyào)區(qū)分A:DescriptivevsPrescriptive描寫式與規(guī)定式Descriptive:ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Prescriptive:ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhatshouldtheysayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobePrescriptive.B:SynchronicvsDiachronic共時(shí)性和歷時(shí)性Synchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.Diachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.C:Speechvswriting言語(yǔ)和文學(xué)Thesearemajormediaofcommunication.D:Languevsparole語(yǔ)言與言語(yǔ)(Saussure索緖爾)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbytheallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole:referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.E:Competencevsperformance語(yǔ)言能力(nénglì)和語(yǔ)言應(yīng)用(Chomsky喬姆斯基)Competence:referstoauser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemoftherules.Performance:referstotheactualuseinconcretesituations.喬姆斯基和索緒爾的區(qū)別(qūbié)：索緒爾采用的是社會(huì)學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)(guāndiǎn)，他的語(yǔ)言觀念是社會(huì)慣例性的。喬姆斯基從心理學(xué)角度看待語(yǔ)言，對(duì)他而言，語(yǔ)言能力是每個(gè)個(gè)體的大腦特征。E:TraditionalGrammarvsmodernlinguistics傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法與現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)Saussure的《CourseinGeneralLinguistics》標(biāo)志著現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)的開(kāi)端。區(qū)別：a:語(yǔ)言學(xué)是descriptive,傳統(tǒng)的語(yǔ)法是prescriptive.b:現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)認(rèn)為口頭語(yǔ)是基本的，而不是書(shū)面語(yǔ)。c:現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)并不強(qiáng)迫進(jìn)入一個(gè)拉丁語(yǔ)為基礎(chǔ)的框架。4.Thedefinitionoflanguage語(yǔ)言的定義Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.5.Thedesignfeaturesoflanguage語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征Thedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagecanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichdistinguishitfromanimallanguagesystem.A：Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.B：Productivity能產(chǎn)性Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.C：Duality二重性Twolevels:Atthelowerorthebasiclevelisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Athigherlevel,thesoundsoflanguagecanberegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning.D：Displacement移位(yíwèi)性Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaingedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.E：Culturaltransmission文化(wénhuà)傳遞Languageisculturallytransmitted.F：Interchangeability互換性Referstomancanbothproduceorreceivethemassages.6.Functionsoflanguage語(yǔ)言(yǔyán)的功能A：mainfunctions(1)Descriptivefunction(描述):referstoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbestatedordenied,andevenverified.(2)Expressivefunction(表達(dá)):referstoemotiveorattitudinalfunction,conveyinformationaboutuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudice,andvalues.(3)Socialfunction(社會(huì)):referstointerpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Jakobson將語(yǔ)言功能劃分六大類：emotive,conative(意動(dòng)),referential(指向),poetic(娛樂(lè)),phaticcommunication(寒暄),andmatalinguistic(元語(yǔ)言).B：macrofunctions(1)Ideational(概念):Itistoorganizethespeaker’sorwriter’sexperienceoftherealorimaginaryworld.(2)Interpersonal(人際):Itistoindicate,establish,ormaintainsocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople.(3)Textual:Itistoorganizethewrittenorspokentextsinacoherentmanner,andfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused.注意知識(shí)點(diǎn)：1.Onomatopoeicwords(擬聲詞)canNOTshowarbitrarynatureoflanguage.(擬聲詞并不能表示語(yǔ)言的任意性，有些擬聲詞和所表達(dá)的事物(shìwù)是有聯(lián)系的。)2.聾啞人所使用(shǐyòng)的語(yǔ)言也是語(yǔ)言。3.語(yǔ)言的改變(gǎibiàn)并不是任意的，而是遵循社會(huì)規(guī)律的。4.語(yǔ)言是在人類出現(xiàn)一段時(shí)間后出現(xiàn)的。第2章音位學(xué)本章要點(diǎn)：1.Speechorgans發(fā)音器官2.Distinction,classificationandthecriteriaofdescriptionbetweenconstantsandvowels輔音和元音的區(qū)別、分類及描寫規(guī)則3.Phonemesandallophones音位和音位變體4.Phonologicalruleanddistinctivefeatures音系規(guī)則和區(qū)別特征5.Syllablestructure,stressandintonation音節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)、重音和語(yǔ)調(diào)本章考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)音學(xué)：語(yǔ)音學(xué)的定義；發(fā)音器官的英文名稱；英語(yǔ)輔音的定義、發(fā)音部位、發(fā)音方法和分類；英語(yǔ)元音的定義和分類、基本元音；發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)；聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)；聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)；語(yǔ)音標(biāo)記；嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法和寬式標(biāo)音法。音系學(xué)：音系學(xué)的定義；音系學(xué)與語(yǔ)音學(xué)的區(qū)別；音素，音位，音位變體最小對(duì)立體，自由變體的定義；自由變體；音位對(duì)立分布(fēnbù)與互補(bǔ)分布；區(qū)別性特征；超語(yǔ)段音位學(xué)；音節(jié)；重音（詞重音，句子重音）；音高和音調(diào)。本章(běnzhānɡ)內(nèi)容索引：1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.Phonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)(1)Thedefinitionofphonetics(2)Threeresearchfields(3)Organsofspeech(4)Voicelesssounds(5)Voicedsounds(6)Orthographicrepresentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsA:DefinitionB:ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsC:ClassificationofEnglishvowels3.Phonology(1)Relationshipbetweenphonologyandphonetics(2)Phone,phonme(3)Allophone(4)SomerulesinphonologyA:SequentialrulesB:AssimilationruleC:Deletionrule(5)Supra-segmentalfeatures:stress,tone,intonationA:stressB:toneC:intonation1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.Phonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)(1)ThedefinitionofphoneticsPhonetics:isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumofEnglishlanguage.Itconcernswiththesoundsthatoccurintheworld’languages.(2)Threeresearchfields三大研究(yánjiū)領(lǐng)域考點(diǎn)名詞解釋A:Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音(fāyīn)語(yǔ)音學(xué):thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.B:Acousticphonetics聲學(xué)(shēngxué)語(yǔ)音學(xué):thestudyofphysicalproperties(特征)ofspeechsounds.C:Perceptualphonetics感知(gǎnzhī)語(yǔ)音學(xué):referstotheperceptionofspeechsounds.(3)OrgansofspeechVocalorgans:lungs,trachea(氣管),throat,nose,andmouth.(4)Voicelesssounds清音Thesoundproducedwithoutcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(聲帶).(5)Voicedsounds濁音Thesoundproducedwithcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(聲帶).(6)Orthographicrepresentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions語(yǔ)音正字表——寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音A:Broadtranscriptions:transcriptionwiththelettersymbolsonly(一般用于詞典和教學(xué))B:Narrowtranscriptions:transcriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(變音符號(hào)).(語(yǔ)言學(xué)家在語(yǔ)言研究中使用)IPA:InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(國(guó)際音標(biāo))產(chǎn)生于19世紀(jì)末。(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds語(yǔ)音的分類A:Definitiona:Consonants:soundsareproducedbyconstrictingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impedeorcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.b:Vowels:soundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheairintheoralcavity.B:ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsa:intermsofthemannersofarticulation(發(fā)音(fāyīn)方式):Stops(爆破音):pbtdkg6Fricatives(摩擦音):/f//v//θ//e//s//z//?//?/h//r/8Affricatives(塞擦音):/t?//d?/Liquids(清音(qīngyīn)):/l//r/Nasals(鼻音(bíyīn)):/m,n,η/Glides(滑音):/wj/b:intermsofplaceofarticulation(發(fā)音部位)bilabials(雙唇音):/pbmw/labiodentals(唇齒音):/fv/dentals(齒音):/e//θ/alveolars(齒齦音):/tdnlrs/6palatals(腭音):/j??t?d/5velars(軟腭音):/kgη/glottal(喉音):/h/C:ClassificationofEnglishvowelsa:thepositionofthetoneinmouth:front,central,back,b:theopennessofthemouth:closedsemi-closedsemi-openandopen.c:theshapeofthelips:roundedandunroundedd:thelengthofthevowels:tenseandlaxorlongandshort3.Phonology(1)RelationshipbetweenphonologyandphoneticsSimilarity:Bothconcernedwiththespeechsounds.Differences:ApproachandFocus.Phonetics:generalnature,itisinterestedinallhumanlanguages.Phonology:howspeechsoundsformpatternsandhowsoundsconveymeanings.(2)Phone,Phoneme考點(diǎn)(kǎodiǎn)Phone:Itisabasicunitofphoneticstudy,aminimalsoundsegmentthathumanspeechcanproduce.Butdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phoneme:Itisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy.Itisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.(3)Allophone:Thedifferentrealizationsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledallophones.（同一個(gè)音位(yīnwèi)在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中的實(shí)現(xiàn)方式被稱為音位的音位變體）（1）complementarydistribution:whentwoormoreallophonesofthesamephonemedonotdistinguishmeaningandoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments,thentheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.(當(dāng)同一個(gè)音位的兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的音位變體(biàntǐ)不區(qū)別意義，并且出現(xiàn)在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，那么他們被稱作處于互補(bǔ)分布)（2）Freevariation:如果兩個(gè)音素出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境(huánjìng)中，并不區(qū)別意義，即用一個(gè)音素去替換另一個(gè)音素不產(chǎn)生新詞，僅僅產(chǎn)生同一個(gè)詞的不同讀音。那么這兩個(gè)音素就可被視為自由變體。（3）Phonemiccontrast:語(yǔ)音相似的音如果是區(qū)別性音位，那么可以說(shuō)他們形成了一個(gè)音位對(duì)立。如“k”和“g”在cut和gut是兩個(gè)不同的音位，這兩個(gè)詞除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個(gè)音外，其余的音都一樣，因此這兩個(gè)詞就構(gòu)成(gòuchéng)了最小對(duì)立體minimalpairs。音位對(duì)立指的是能夠造成意義(yìyì)差別的語(yǔ)音差別，比如mate和late，每一個(gè)單詞的第一個(gè)輔音都能造成音位差別，因此形成音位對(duì)立。最小對(duì)立體就是兩個(gè)對(duì)立的音位只有一個(gè)語(yǔ)音特征不同，其他語(yǔ)音特征都相同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b]，都是輔音、都是爆破音、都是雙唇音，但有一點(diǎn)不一樣，前者是清輔音，后者是濁輔音。相反，[m]和[p]就不能形成最小對(duì)立體，因?yàn)樗鼈冸m然都是輔音、都是唇音，但至少有兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音特征不同：除了清濁不同外，一個(gè)是鼻音，一個(gè)是爆破音。(4)Somerulesinphonology音位學(xué)的一些規(guī)則A:thesequentialrulesTherearerulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,andtheserulesarecalledsequentialrules.某一特定語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)言模式是受規(guī)則支配的，這就叫做序列規(guī)則。例如：如果一個(gè)單詞的以L開(kāi)頭，那后面接的必須是元音。B:theassimilationrule同化(tónghuà)規(guī)則同化指一個(gè)音具有了臨近音的一部分或者全部特征的這一過(guò)程，包括鼻化，齒化，鄂化。同化規(guī)則通過(guò)“拷貝”序列音位的一個(gè)特征來(lái)將一個(gè)音同化為另一個(gè)，從而使兩個(gè)音相似。相鄰近的同化多半是由發(fā)音或者生理過(guò)程引起的。我們說(shuō)話時(shí)，傾向于增加發(fā)音的舒適度，這種懶惰的傾向可能會(huì)被規(guī)律化，作為語(yǔ)言的規(guī)則。例如：[I:]在beangreenteam單詞(dāncí)中，[I:]會(huì)被鼻音化。C:deletionrule省略(shěnglüè)規(guī)則省略規(guī)則告訴我們?cè)谑裁磿r(shí)候省略一個(gè)語(yǔ)音，雖然這個(gè)音在正字法上是仍有體現(xiàn)。例如：g在單詞sign，design中是不發(fā)音的，但在完整的signature和designation中的g是發(fā)音的。(5).supra-segmentalfeatures:stress,toneandintonation超切分特征：重音，音調(diào)，語(yǔ)調(diào)A:單詞和句子的重音，重音可以區(qū)分意義。'digestn.摘要di'gestv.消化Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.B:音調(diào)是由聲帶vocalcord的不同震動(dòng)引起的。C:語(yǔ)調(diào)涉及出現(xiàn)的升降模式，每個(gè)模式都應(yīng)用于相對(duì)一致的意義。注意點(diǎn)：Speechismorebasicthanwriting的原因：A:linguisticevolution’view,speechispriortowriting.B:ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwriting(amountofinformationconveyed)C:nativespeakersacquiretheirmothertonguebyspeech.D:spokenlanguagerevealmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeech.phone與phoneme區(qū)別Aphoneisphoneticunitorsegment,thespeechsoundwehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotaparticularsound,whichisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Allophones:clearlanddarklareallophonesofthephonemel.3.cardinalvowels基本(jīběn)元音英國(guó)音位學(xué)家DanielJonesChapter5Semantics1.Definition1.命名(mìngmíng)論ThenamingtheoryProposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.(缺點(diǎn)(quēdiǎn)：僅限于名詞)2.意念論TheconceptualistviewOgdenandRichardsItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.語(yǔ)境論ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行為主義論BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.Thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.2.Lexicalmeaning:Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.3.Mainsenserelations1.同義詞SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（方言(fāngyán)）BritishAmericaAutumfallFlatapartment(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle（文體(wéntǐ)）Oldmandaddyfathermaleparent(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning（情感(qínggǎn)）CollaboratorVSAccomplice(4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配）AccuseVSCharge（accuse…of;charge…with）RottentomatoesVSAddledeggs(5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（語(yǔ)義）AmazeVSAstound2.多義詞PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Ball:1,aroundobjectusedingame.2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.3.同音(形)異義HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.1.Homophones同音異義Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.2.Homographs同形異義Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.3.Completehomonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.e.g.tearv./tearn.6.上下(shàngxià)義關(guān)系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Superordinate:animalSubordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,7.反義詞AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.gradable:等級(jí)(děngjí)反義詞old-youngcomplementary：互補(bǔ)(hùbǔ)反義詞male-femalerelational:關(guān)系father-sonbuy-sell4.Sentencesenserelations:1.XissynonymouswithY（同義）Eg.Heisabachelorallhislife.Henevermarriedallhislife.XisinconsistentwithY（不一致）Eg.JohnismarriedJohnisabachelor.XentailsY（附屬）Eg.HehasbeentoFrance.HehasbeentoEurope.XpresupposeY（Y是X的先決條件）Eg.John’sbikeneedsreparing.Johnhasabike.Xisacontradiction（X是一個(gè)矛盾句）Eg.Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.Xissemanticallyanomalous.（語(yǔ)義異常）Eg.Thetablehasbadintensions.5.Analysisofmeaning1.ComponentialAnalysis成分分析法----分析詞匯抽象意義It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Eg.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human2.PredicationAnalysis述謂結(jié)構(gòu)(jiégòu)分析(由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出(tíchū))It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.(通過(guò)對(duì)論元argument和謂語(yǔ)predicate的分析(fēnxī)，達(dá)到對(duì)句子意義進(jìn)行分析的許多模式中的一種.)3.先設(shè)前提PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.4.蘊(yùn)涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.第6章pragmatics本章要點(diǎn)：1.speechacttheory言語(yǔ)行為的理論2.cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins合作原則及其準(zhǔn)則3.Griceantheoryofconventionalimplicature格萊斯會(huì)話含義理論本章考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)用學(xué)的定義；語(yǔ)義學(xué)與語(yǔ)用學(xué)的區(qū)別；語(yǔ)境與意義；言語(yǔ)行為理論（發(fā)話行為、行事行為和取效行為）；合作原則。實(shí)例分析言語(yǔ)行為、合作原則的違反和會(huì)話含義。本章(běnzhānɡ)內(nèi)容索引：1．PragmaticsDefinitionPragmatics&semanticsContextSentencemeaningvsutterancemeaning2．SpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsSearl’sclassificationofspeechactsIndirectspeechacts3．PrincipleofconversionCooperativeprincipleanditsmaxinsViolationofthemaxins4．ConversationalimplicatureDefinitionCharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCalculabilityCancellabilityNon-detachabilityNon-conventionality5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure1．PragmaticsDefinitionItisthestudyofspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmatics&semanticsIfthecontextwastakenintothestudyofmeaning,thenthestudycallspragmatics.ContextA:Definition:Itisgenerallyconsideredastheknowledgethatsharedbythespeakerandhearer.B:Significance:Itdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandthehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withcontext,thecommunicationwouldachievesatisfactoryresult.SentencemeaningvsUtterancemeaning句子(jùzi)意義和話語(yǔ)意義Sentencemeaning:abstractandde-contextualized.Utterancemeaning:concreteandcontextdependent,andbasedonsentencemeaning.2．SpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsA:Anlocutionaryact(言內(nèi)行為(xíngwéi))：anactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Literalmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.B:Anillocutionaryact(言外行為(xíngwéi))：anactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.C:Anperlocutionaryact(言后行為(xíngwéi))：anactofperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;theconsequenceorchangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;Searl’s(瑟爾)classificationofspeechactsA:Representatives(闡述類):statingordescribing,sayingsomethingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.陳述，相信，發(fā)誓Eg:IswearIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.B:directives(指令類)：Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge。Eg：openthedoor!C:Commissives(承諾類)：committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.commit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten。Eg：Ipromisetocome!D:Expressives(表達(dá)類)：expressingthefeelingorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcomeEg：IamsorryforthemessIhavemade.E:Declarations(宣告類)：bringaboutimmediatechangebysayingsomething.appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resignEg:Ifireyou.Indirectspeechacts(developedbySearl)Twospeechacts:Theprimary:speaker’sgoalofcommunicationThesecond:meansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.3．PrincipleofconversionCooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins(PaulGrice)A:themaximofquantity量的準(zhǔn)則(zhǔnzé):(youarewhatyousay)Makeyourcontributioninformativeasrequired,notmoreinformativethanrequired.B:themaximofquality質(zhì)的準(zhǔn)則(zhǔnzé):Tautologies(意思(yìsī)重復(fù))Donotsaysomethingyoubelieveisfalse,orsomethingislakeofevidence.C:themaximofrelation關(guān)系準(zhǔn)則:Berelevant.D:themaximofmanner方式準(zhǔn)則:Avoidobscurity,ambiguity,bebriefandorderly.Violationofthemaxims通過(guò)實(shí)例分析違反準(zhǔn)則。4．ConversationalimplicatureDefinitionCharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCancellability/defeasibilityThismeansthatanimplicaturecanbecancelled.Thefeatureallowsthespeakertoimplysomethingandthendenythatimplicature.A:Let'shaveadrink.B:It'snotoneo'clockyet.(implyingwecandrinkafteroneo'clock)A:Ididn'tsaythatyoucoulddrinkafteroneo'clock.Isaidthatyoucouldn'tdrinkbefore.(theimplicaturedisappears)Non-detachabilityThismeansthatanimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottolinguisticform.Thereforeimplicaturescannotbedetachedfromanutterancesimplybychangingthewordsforsynonymsorinotherwordsbyrelexicalizationorreformulation.Forexample,ifeveryoneknowsthatBobisanidiot,saying"Bobisagenius"toconveytheoppositemeaning"Bobisterriblyfoolish,hecanchooseanyofthefollowingsynonymousexpressionstomaintainthesameimplicature:a)Bobisamentalprodigy.b)Bobisanexceptionallycleverhumanbeing.c)Bobisanenormousintellect.d)Bobisabigbrain.Calculability/derivabilityThismeansthatanimplicatureiscalculable,thatistosay,itcanbeworkedoutfromtheliteralmeaningorthesenseoftheutteranceontheonehand,andtheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximsontheotherhand.Non-conventionalityThisistosaythatconversationalimplicaturesarenotconventional,thatis,notpartoftheconventionalmeaningoflinguisticexpressions.Butweshouldnoticethatwhatbeginsasaconversationalimplicaturemaybecomethemeaningofalexicalitemorlinguisticexpression.Forexample:"Gotothebathroom"originallymeantGoingtoWCasaneuphemism,butnowhasbecomeconventionalized.Wedon'thavetoderivetheimplicaturebytheCPbutbyconvention.5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure第7章languagechanges語(yǔ)言(yǔyán)變化本章(běnzhānɡ)要點(diǎn)：1．Phonologicalchange音系變化(biànhuà)2．Morphologicalandsyntacticchange形態(tài)和句法變化3．Lexicalandsemanticchange詞匯和語(yǔ)義變化本章考點(diǎn)：新詞的增加：創(chuàng)新詞，縮略詞，緊縮詞，詞首字母縮略詞，逆構(gòu)詞法；詞義的變化：詞義擴(kuò)大，縮小，意義的轉(zhuǎn)換。1.Definitionofhistoricallinguistics歷史語(yǔ)言學(xué)的定義Abranchoflinguistics.Itconcernedwiththedescriptionandexplanationoflanguagechangesthatoccurredoverthetime.2.PhonologicalchangePhonologicalchangetendstobesystematic.ItispossibletoseearegularpatternofpronunciationchangesthroughoutthehistoryofEnglishlanguage.3.MorphologicalandsyntacticchangeAdditionofaffixes詞匯(cíhuì)的增加InEnglishmanyaffixesareborrowed.Egthesuffix–mentinFrench.LostofaffixesSomeaffixesfadeoutofusefornoapparentreasons.ChangesforwordorderCasemarkinglost,subject-object-verbfixed.ChangeinnegationruleEg.Ilovetheenot.>Idonotlovethee.4lexicalandsemanticchange(1)Additionofnewwords新詞(xīncí)的增加A:coinage/inventionAnewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.Eg:walkman,Kodak,FordB:clippedwordsClippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrase.Eggym-gymnasiumExpo-expositionMemo-memorandumDisco-discothequeC:blendingAblendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.Egsmog=smoke+fogMotelBrunch=breakfast+lunchD:AcronymsAcronymsarewordderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.EgBBCVOAE:Back-formationDeletingtheaffixes.Egto

automate

自動(dòng)化←automation

to

legislate

立法(lìfǎ)←legislation

F:FunctionalshiftWord-classshiftfromonetoanother.Egnoun-verbloveG：Borrowing借詞(jiècí)法(2)Lossofwords詞匯(cíhuì)的廢棄Egbeseem–tobesuitableWot–toknowGyve–afetter(3)changeinthemeaningofwordsSemanticbroadening詞義擴(kuò)大Holiday原形是holyday神圣的宗教節(jié)日，現(xiàn)在指不用上班的時(shí)間。Semanticnarrowing詞義的縮小Hound曾經(jīng)用來(lái)指Dog的總稱，現(xiàn)在縮小為指某一種特殊的狗。Semanticshift詞義轉(zhuǎn)換Inn原本指小旅館小酒吧，現(xiàn)在指非常有名的好旅館。5SomerecenttrendsA:movingtogreaterinformality.Ain’tcan’tdidn’t出現(xiàn)在文章中。B:theinfluenceofAmericanEnglish隨著政治經(jīng)濟(jì)文化的發(fā)張，美國(guó)的影視，報(bào)紙，雜志，廣播和電視對(duì)世界文化造成很大的影響。C:theinfluenceoftechnologyandscience新的技術(shù)科技的發(fā)展創(chuàng)造出新的詞匯和表達(dá)D:SpacetravelSpacesuit,heat-shieldsplash-downE:computerandinternetlanguagePrograminputoutputF:Ecology生態(tài)學(xué)環(huán)境保護(hù)(huánjìngbǎohù)和資源保護(hù)。6causesoflanguagechange語(yǔ)言變化(biànhuà)的原因經(jīng)濟(jì)政治文化(wénhuà)發(fā)展。第8章sociolinguistics1thescopeofsociolinguisticsThedefinitionofsociolinguistics定義Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandsocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Therelatednessbetweenthelanguageandsociety相關(guān)性Themainfunctionoflanguageiscommunication,butitalsousetoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationship.Usersofthesamelanguagemayspeakdifferentlybecausetheirdifferentsocialbackground.Speechcommunityandspeechvariety言語(yǔ)團(tuán)體與言語(yǔ)變體Speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatsingledoutforanyspecialstudy.Speechvariety:anydistinguishableformoflanguageusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Speechfeaturescanbefoundatthelexical,thephonological,morphological,orthesyntacticallevelofthelanguage.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticsstudiesMacro-sociolinguisticsorthesociologyoflanguage:宏觀社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)或者語(yǔ)言社會(huì)學(xué)Viewthesocietyasawholeandconsiderhowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowitreflectthesocialdifferentiations.Micro-sociolinguisticsorsociolinguisticsproper:微觀社會(huì)(shèhuì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)或嚴(yán)格意義的社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)：Lookatthesocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit.2varietiesoflanguageDialectalvarietiesRegionaldialectDefinition:referstothelanguageusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Features:Regionaldialectboundariesareoftencoincidingwithgeographicalboundaries.Inmostcases,theregionaldialectintwoneighboringareaaremutuallyintelligibletoagreatextent,andthechangefromonedialecttoanotherisgradual.Reasons:Thegeographicbarriers;loyaltytotheone’snativespeech;physicalandpsychologicalresistancetothechange.Sociolect(1)Definition:social-classdialectreferstothecharacteristicsofaparticularsocialclass.(2)Features:twopeoplefromthesamegeographicmayspeakdifferentlybecauseoftheirsocialfactors,suchasbackgroundinfluencewhichinfluencelinguisticform.(3):Ascentisanimportantmakerofsociolect.Languageandgender(標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(biāozhǔn)，語(yǔ)調(diào)，詞匯，禮貌)Thelanguageofwomanismorestandardthanthatofman.Womanhaswiderrangeofintonation.WomantendtouseadjectivesofevaluationWomantendstobemorepolitethanman.Languageandage(詞匯(cíhuì)差異)A)thelanguageusedbytheoldgenerationandtheyoungergenerationisdifferent,especiallyinthelexicallevel.Idiolect(個(gè)人語(yǔ)言)Referstopersonaldialectthatwasdecidedbyhissocialbackgrou