流域管理中的幾個(gè)理念及其應(yīng)用

1、流域管理中的幾個(gè)理念及其應(yīng)用 馮 省（黃河上中游管理局，陜西 西安 710021）流域管理是指通過法律法規(guī)、政策、工程技術(shù)措施對流域內(nèi)自然資源的保護(hù)，減緩流域自然環(huán)境的退化，促進(jìn)水資源、土地資源、森林資源等自然資源的合理利用的實(shí)踐活動(dòng)，其終極目的是維持流域的可持續(xù)發(fā)展，促進(jìn)流域內(nèi)人們的生產(chǎn)生活水平不斷提高。流域管理的理念關(guān)系著流域管理行為的成效。在新的形勢下，流域管理又面臨著新的挑戰(zhàn)。新的理念的運(yùn)用為流域管理的實(shí)踐活動(dòng)注入了新的活力。本文結(jié)合流域管理的實(shí)踐，介紹幾個(gè)流域管理的理念及其在實(shí)踐運(yùn)用。1 傳統(tǒng)的流域管理模式面臨的困境以水土保持工作為例，國家在流域治理的相關(guān)政策中有一個(gè)重要的原則，即“

2、誰治理，誰受益”，農(nóng)民以義務(wù)工的形式參加水土保持工作，也是治理活動(dòng)中的重要一員，而水保項(xiàng)目是以關(guān)注生態(tài)環(huán)境改善為核心目標(biāo)的，這一目標(biāo)沒有將農(nóng)民的切身利益訴求，特別是經(jīng)濟(jì)收益得到應(yīng)有的考慮，治理成果的可持續(xù)性難以保障。在傳統(tǒng)的水土保持實(shí)踐中，流域內(nèi)群眾的投工投勞是水土保持資金的重要來源之一，通常是通過當(dāng)?shù)卣男姓侄?，?dòng)員農(nóng)民群眾開展水土保持工作。但隨著國家取消農(nóng)民義務(wù)工，積累工政策的出臺，這種做法顯然已不能再采用了。生態(tài)環(huán)境脆弱的地區(qū)，也是較為貧困的地區(qū)。國家在生態(tài)環(huán)境脆弱的地區(qū)如黃土高原地區(qū)實(shí)施了退耕還林項(xiàng)目，對農(nóng)民退耕的坡地進(jìn)行補(bǔ)貼。退耕還林的補(bǔ)貼成為當(dāng)?shù)剞r(nóng)戶的主要收入來源，在甘肅省靜寧

3、縣北岔小流域?qū)嵤┑闹袊×饔蚬芾眄?xiàng)目中，有部分工程如水窖、梯田建設(shè)項(xiàng)目等項(xiàng)目需要農(nóng)戶配套部分資金，這部分收入是他們項(xiàng)目配套資金的主要來源。當(dāng)?shù)剞r(nóng)戶生計(jì)的脆弱性由此可見一斑。國家退耕還林的補(bǔ)貼政策是有期限的，如果不改變當(dāng)?shù)厝藗兊纳?jì)狀況，退耕還林的成果的可持續(xù)性就很難保障。這些客觀的形勢，要求我們必須拓展流域管理的思路，更新流域管理的理念。2. 綜合流域管理中的理念及其應(yīng)用 l 綜合流域管理通常我們將綜合性流域管理定位于工程技術(shù)手段的合理配置，在黃土高原地區(qū)，以“山、水、田、林、路”的治理思路最具代表性。從流域治理以保土減沙為目的的工程技術(shù)的角度講，這一戰(zhàn)略是毋庸置疑的。但如果從流域管理的服務(wù)對

4、象或受益目標(biāo)群體的角度考慮，綜合流域管理的內(nèi)容則應(yīng)更為豐富。流域管理的服務(wù)對象或目標(biāo)受益群體既包括生活在流域內(nèi)的人們，也包括生活在下游的人們。對于黃河下游地區(qū)人口來說，其受益是通過流域管理措施，改善黃土高原地區(qū)生態(tài)環(huán)境來實(shí)現(xiàn)的，即由于上游流域管理措施而減少了入黃泥沙，減輕對黃河河道的淤積，降低了洪水的威脅。由于黃河的淤積問題更為突出，因此水土保持工作的重點(diǎn)是以流域的生態(tài)環(huán)境的改善為核心目標(biāo)。但在流域內(nèi)，更為突出的問題是貧困，貧困是導(dǎo)致生態(tài)環(huán)境惡化的重要原因。對流域內(nèi)的人們而言，脫貧是最為迫切的目標(biāo)。因此，流域管理的目標(biāo)，應(yīng)是一種綜合性的目標(biāo)。這種目標(biāo)上的綜合性，決定了手段的綜合性。采取上下游統(tǒng)

5、籌兼顧的戰(zhàn)略，在措施的內(nèi)容配制上，應(yīng)具有綜合性，這樣才能達(dá)到標(biāo)本兼治的效果。l 替代生計(jì)生計(jì)是指人們生存的模式與賴以生存的手段。替代生計(jì)是指利用新的方法和手段替代人們原來的生計(jì)手段或模式，在改善生態(tài)環(huán)境的同時(shí)，提高人們的生產(chǎn)生活水平。由此可見，替代生計(jì)體現(xiàn)著流域管理目標(biāo)的雙重性。替代生計(jì)將環(huán)境改善與人們的生產(chǎn)生活水平的提高很好地結(jié)合了起來。在黃土高原實(shí)施的黃土高原水土保持世行貸款項(xiàng)目和中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目是這一理念成功實(shí)施的范例。封育是項(xiàng)目采用的利用植被的自然恢復(fù)能力提高植被覆蓋率，減小水土流失的重要項(xiàng)目措施之一，這項(xiàng)措施的實(shí)施要求對項(xiàng)目區(qū)采取禁牧。放牧是項(xiàng)目區(qū)人們傳統(tǒng)的生計(jì)方式之一，是當(dāng)?shù)厝罕?/p>

6、增加收入的主渠道。為了不影響項(xiàng)目區(qū)人們的生產(chǎn)生活水平，項(xiàng)目在實(shí)施封禁的同時(shí)，向農(nóng)戶提供資金，資助農(nóng)戶購買良種家畜，建設(shè)圈養(yǎng)畜棚，修建梯田，種植飼草。在林草措施中，項(xiàng)目根據(jù)各地的條件，選擇適宜的果樹品種，種植經(jīng)濟(jì)樹，在提高植被覆蓋率的同時(shí)，增加了農(nóng)戶的經(jīng)濟(jì)收入。在一些地區(qū)，向退耕的農(nóng)戶資助蔬菜溫棚建設(shè)和種植技術(shù)培訓(xùn)。項(xiàng)目的實(shí)施，調(diào)整了當(dāng)?shù)厝罕姷纳?jì)模式，不僅沒有使當(dāng)?shù)剞r(nóng)戶的生活水平降低，而且大大提高了他們的收入，同時(shí)也使項(xiàng)目區(qū)的植被很好地得以恢復(fù)，顯著提高了植被覆蓋率。項(xiàng)目的成果效益可持續(xù)性得到保障。替代生計(jì)的理念是以人為本思想的具體體現(xiàn)。不難想象，如果采用強(qiáng)制手段禁牧，以犧牲項(xiàng)目區(qū)群眾的利益為

7、代價(jià)來實(shí)現(xiàn)項(xiàng)目目標(biāo)，禁牧是很難禁得住的，即使禁住了，也不可能禁得久，效益沒有可持續(xù)性。因?yàn)榱饔蛑卫淼淖罱K目標(biāo)是服務(wù)于人的，項(xiàng)目的措施應(yīng)以保障和促進(jìn)流域內(nèi)人們的生存與發(fā)展為首要目標(biāo)。流域治理的目標(biāo)是為了實(shí)現(xiàn)可持續(xù)發(fā)展?？沙掷m(xù)發(fā)展應(yīng)是流域管理目標(biāo)群體的共同發(fā)展。替代生計(jì)的理念秉承了共同發(fā)展的理念，從關(guān)注民生入手，改善生態(tài)環(huán)境，從流域管理的目標(biāo)而言，很好地將生態(tài)效益與環(huán)境效益，上下游之間的利益結(jié)合了起來，使流域管理效益的可持續(xù)性得到有效保障，因此替代生計(jì)是流域管理的必然選擇。流域管理的替代生計(jì)策略不是流域管理的權(quán)宜之計(jì)，不是為了環(huán)境治理的單一目標(biāo)而對治理流域內(nèi)的群眾的補(bǔ)償性的做法。替代生計(jì)是流域管理

8、的終極目標(biāo)所要求和決定的。通過采取替代生計(jì)的戰(zhàn)略，實(shí)現(xiàn)了生態(tài)環(huán)境改善與生產(chǎn)生活水平提高的共贏。通過生態(tài)環(huán)境的改善，解決了自然資源的可持續(xù)利用問題，通過生計(jì)模式的改善，解決了發(fā)展的問題。可以說，替代生計(jì)的理念，是實(shí)現(xiàn)真正意義上的可持續(xù)發(fā)展的科學(xué)理念。l 參與式 流域管理中的參與式理念是指在流域管理活動(dòng)中，所有利益相關(guān)者參與流域管理的活動(dòng)，特別是社區(qū)農(nóng)戶共同參與流域管理的活動(dòng)，包括流域綜合管理的規(guī)劃的編制，流域管理活動(dòng)的實(shí)施、管理等。在流域管理的參與式理念中，特別強(qiáng)調(diào)社區(qū)農(nóng)戶的參與。這是由于農(nóng)戶是流域內(nèi)資源的直接使用者，是綜合流域管理的受益目標(biāo)群體。通過他們的參與，使發(fā)展目標(biāo)群體的發(fā)展愿望得到充分

9、的表達(dá)，從而使規(guī)劃內(nèi)容能充分反映目標(biāo)群體的意愿。參與式理念的運(yùn)用，使規(guī)劃的內(nèi)容更具針對性，特別是在解決農(nóng)戶的關(guān)切方面。參與式理念改變了傳統(tǒng)的至上而下的流域管理模式，采取了至下而上的工作方法，增強(qiáng)了社區(qū)農(nóng)戶對項(xiàng)目的擁有感，為項(xiàng)目的順利實(shí)施奠定了良好的基礎(chǔ)，對項(xiàng)目的后續(xù)管理和項(xiàng)目效益的可持續(xù)性提供了良好的社會基礎(chǔ)。在參與的過程中，各參與者均是平等的主體，具有平等的發(fā)言權(quán)，通過民主的方式?jīng)Q定流域發(fā)展的內(nèi)容與措施和發(fā)展優(yōu)先順序。因此，從社會學(xué)角度而言，參與式理念，促進(jìn)社區(qū)的民主進(jìn)程。同時(shí)，參與式理念促進(jìn)社區(qū)的公平發(fā)展。以中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目為例，項(xiàng)目在利用參與式方法中，瞄準(zhǔn)貧困與弱勢群體，對通過參與式方

10、式甄別出的貧困農(nóng)戶采取傾斜政策，使他們同樣享有項(xiàng)目的效益。在參與式方法的實(shí)踐應(yīng)用中，還應(yīng)注重婦女的參與。一方面，男性農(nóng)民工大量進(jìn)城打工，婦女成為流域社區(qū)的主要常駐群體。同時(shí)，社會學(xué)研究成果表明，只有婦女的進(jìn)展與發(fā)展才有社會的進(jìn)步與發(fā)展。因此，通過婦女的參與，提高了她們的自信心與社會地位，從面促進(jìn)社會的全面進(jìn)步。通過參與方式的應(yīng)用，有利于加深流域內(nèi)農(nóng)戶對流域管理目標(biāo)的認(rèn)識和相關(guān)意識的培育。比如，在“中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目”中，通過讓村民參與繪制“問題樹”與“目標(biāo)樹”這種形式，在村民意識中建立環(huán)境與生計(jì)手段之間互動(dòng)的關(guān)系，培育環(huán)境友好型生計(jì)的意識?！皢栴}樹”是一種反映存在問題的樹狀圖，“目標(biāo)樹”是一種

11、根據(jù)對問題的分析結(jié)果，找出相應(yīng)解決方法，以樹狀結(jié)構(gòu)圖反映結(jié)果的直觀的表達(dá)方式。 “問題樹”和“目標(biāo)樹”是分析、解決問題在不同階段對樹狀表達(dá)方式的形象稱呼。首先，讓村民以頭腦風(fēng)暴（暢所欲言）的形式，說明自己生產(chǎn)生活方面存在的困難和影響或制約本社區(qū)發(fā)展的問題，在專家的幫助下找出問題的根源，標(biāo)示于“問題樹”的根部。接下來，將“問題樹”轉(zhuǎn)化成“目標(biāo)樹”，引導(dǎo)村民討論提出解決問題的辦法，將這些辦法分門別類，列在“樹”的枝干上，而所對應(yīng)的各項(xiàng)措施作為“果實(shí)”“掛”在枝頭。這樣一種形象生動(dòng)的參與方式，在潛移默化之中在農(nóng)戶的意識中建立起環(huán)境友好型生計(jì)的理念，增強(qiáng)他們對項(xiàng)目目標(biāo)的認(rèn)可程度。 參與式方法在實(shí)踐應(yīng)用

12、中，是在發(fā)展專家的協(xié)助下實(shí)施的。通過對流域狀況的充分調(diào)查，在了解流域及其發(fā)展中面臨和存在的問題以及流域內(nèi)農(nóng)戶的發(fā)展需求的基礎(chǔ)之上，制訂科學(xué)的流域管理目標(biāo)，通過進(jìn)一步科學(xué)的分析，為農(nóng)戶制作一份菜單式發(fā)展規(guī)劃清單，在這份清單之上，說明各方案和措施的利與弊，供農(nóng)戶選擇。參與式的價(jià)值不就在于流域社區(qū)農(nóng)戶擁有并能行使發(fā)展的決策權(quán)。在這一過程中，要避免參與的形式化和簡單化傾向。所謂形式化，是指雖然了解農(nóng)戶的發(fā)展需要，但在流域規(guī)劃的內(nèi)容中并沒有體現(xiàn)出農(nóng)戶共同的發(fā)展愿望。簡單化是指沒有對流域的客觀狀況做出應(yīng)有的科學(xué)分析，如風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析，可行性分析等，只是將農(nóng)戶的意見編入規(guī)劃。形式上看，似乎充分滿足了農(nóng)戶的需要，但

13、因沒有對這些需要的合理性，與項(xiàng)目總體目標(biāo)垢關(guān)聯(lián)性做出應(yīng)有的分析，存在著深度不足的問題，規(guī)劃的可行性將大打折扣，不利項(xiàng)目目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn)。參與式理念在實(shí)踐工作中是通過參與式工具的運(yùn)用而實(shí)現(xiàn)的，參與式工具包括半結(jié)構(gòu)訪談，流域踏查，目標(biāo)樹分析，頭腦風(fēng)暴等。在實(shí)踐工作中，對于參與式工具的運(yùn)用要求對每種工具使用的目的要明確（解決什么問題），每項(xiàng)工具應(yīng)用后的產(chǎn)出成果也要明確。 參與的意義在于明確發(fā)目標(biāo)群體的發(fā)展需要，制定科學(xué)務(wù)實(shí)的發(fā)展規(guī)劃，通過民主決策，實(shí)現(xiàn)流域發(fā)展?；氐皆诒疚拈_始提到的農(nóng)村“兩工”取消后，流域管理所面臨的民間投工投勞不足以及資金缺口加大的問題。參與式方法為這一問題的解決提供了一條值得探索的途徑

14、。中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目在編制流域管理綜合規(guī)劃的過程中，采用了參與式的方法。在實(shí)施中，為了增強(qiáng)農(nóng)戶對項(xiàng)目的擁有意識，項(xiàng)目要求農(nóng)戶自籌一部分資金。對一些項(xiàng)目的實(shí)施要求勞動(dòng)力投入。由于規(guī)劃內(nèi)容充分反映了農(nóng)民的需要，項(xiàng)目區(qū)農(nóng)戶表現(xiàn)出了很高的積極性和主動(dòng)性。農(nóng)戶配套資金和投工投勞全部到位。通過參與式方法的應(yīng)用變農(nóng)戶的被動(dòng)投入為主動(dòng)參與，這是中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目參與式方法應(yīng)用實(shí)踐帶來的啟示，也為解決新形勢下流域管理工作的投入瓶頸提供了一條解決的思路。l 部門協(xié)作在前文談到參與式理念中，提到了“所有利益相關(guān)者參與流域管理的活動(dòng)”。在流域管理活動(dòng)中，涉及的利益相關(guān)者還包括政府機(jī)構(gòu)的相關(guān)職能部門。部門協(xié)作是由流域管

15、理目標(biāo)的綜合性所決定的，也是由服務(wù)目標(biāo)群體一致性所決定的，即流域內(nèi)的農(nóng)戶。流域管理涉及水保，水利，扶貧，林業(yè)，農(nóng)業(yè)等多個(gè)部門。部門的協(xié)作有利于在各部門之間形成合力，發(fā)揮各部門的行業(yè)技術(shù)優(yōu)勢，優(yōu)化資源利用效益。部門協(xié)作首先要對合作部門進(jìn)行識別，或者說對利益相關(guān)者進(jìn)行識別。識別的原則是：（1）哪些部門與流域管理的目標(biāo)有關(guān)；（2）在共同的目標(biāo)中承擔(dān)什么角色或?qū)δ繕?biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn)有什么貢獻(xiàn)。中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目在其參與式流域規(guī)劃的編制過程中，有來自林業(yè)、水利、水保、農(nóng)業(yè)等部門的專業(yè)技術(shù)人員，參加此項(xiàng)工作。對涉及的專業(yè)性的技術(shù)設(shè)計(jì)由對口的部門來完成。保證了規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)的正規(guī)化和專業(yè)化。第二個(gè)方面是要明確協(xié)調(diào)機(jī)制。協(xié)調(diào)

16、機(jī)制的有效運(yùn)作往往關(guān)系著部門協(xié)作的成效的高與低。流域管理的相關(guān)部門在行政管理上是相互獨(dú)立的，由某一個(gè)部門承擔(dān)協(xié)調(diào)職能有一定的難度。目前的部門協(xié)作形式在小流域管理層面上，還主要是通過縣級政府部門以行政手段來協(xié)調(diào)各相關(guān)利益部門。中國小流域管理項(xiàng)目在部門協(xié)作的事務(wù)中（如資金整合），由項(xiàng)目成立的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)小組來承擔(dān)。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)小組的組長由一位主管農(nóng)業(yè)的副縣長擔(dān)任。信息的分享。對實(shí)施的項(xiàng)目的信息進(jìn)行分享，如項(xiàng)目實(shí)施的技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。另外還應(yīng)建立激勵(lì)機(jī)制，鼓勵(lì)相關(guān)部門積極開展部門協(xié)作。3 結(jié)語流域管理涉及社會、經(jīng)濟(jì)、環(huán)境各方面的問題。這些問題的解決需要采取綜合性的流域管理戰(zhàn)略?？沙掷m(xù)替代生計(jì)理念為綜合性流域管理提供了一種行

17、之有效的方法，它體現(xiàn)了在流域管理中既注重環(huán)境效益又注重經(jīng)濟(jì)效益的平衡發(fā)展的思想，為流域管理成果的可持續(xù)性奠定了良好的基礎(chǔ)；參與式理念在流域管理實(shí)踐中的應(yīng)用，使流域管理在關(guān)切民生方面更具針對性，轉(zhuǎn)變了流域管理中群眾參與流域管理的模式，并能促進(jìn)社會的公平發(fā)展；由于流域管理涉及政府的職責(zé)，特別是在涉及公共利益方面，政府部門在資源投入方面起著主導(dǎo)性作用。部門協(xié)作為在流域管理中高效發(fā)揮政府職能提供一種組織上的保障和運(yùn)作模式。這幾個(gè)理念在流域管理的戰(zhàn)略上是一脈相承的。在流域管理中，注重這些理念的運(yùn)用，必將使流域管理的效益更為顯著，促進(jìn)流域的可持續(xù)發(fā)展。Introduction on Several Con

18、cepts and Application in Watershed ManagementFeng Sheng（Upper& Middle Reaches Bureau， Xian 710021）Watershed Management refers to such practice as to protect natural resources in the watershed via laws, policies and engineering measures to mitigate the degradation of eco-environment, promote rati

19、onal use of water resources, land resources, forest resources etc, with maintaining sustainable development and promoting the living and production conditions of residents in the watershed to be ever-growing as the ultimate goal. The concepts closely relate to the efficacy of watershed management pr

20、actice. In the new time, watershed management confronts new challenge. The application of new concepts will boost the watershed management practice. In this article, several concepts and application in watershed management practice are introduced.1 The Puzzle Doom Confronting Traditional Watershed M

21、anagement ModelsTake soil & water conservation as an example, there is an important principle in relevant policies of national watershed management, namely,“He who pool treatment investment or treat the watershed is the beneficiary” . In reality, local farmers, being one of important members, en

22、gage in soil and water conservation activities by contributing their labors. But their interest demands, especially on economic benefits, are not fully addressed, as the core target of soil& water conservation project focuses on eco-environment improvement. In the context, the sustainability of

23、the outputs cannot be secured. Traditionally, farmers labor contribution, or compulsory labor is one of the main sources of soil& water conservation fund, normally mobilizing farmers participating in soil& water conservation via adopting of administrative approach. Newsday, the compulsory la

24、bor policy has been waived by the Central Government, it is inappropriate or impossible to continue the model. The eco-environmentally fragile regions are always plagued with poverty. The Central Government adopts land-conversion-for-forestry policy in the eco-environmentally fragile regions, for in

25、stance, in the loess plateau, subsidizing local farmers for their planting trees instead of farming on slope lands. The annual subsidy becomes local farmers main source of income. In Beicha sub-watershed in Jinning county, Gansu province, one pilot sub-watershed under China Watershed Management Proj

26、ect (CWMP), some private projects, such as water cistern, terracing, need farmers cash contribution. The subsidy is the main source they turn to for raising the counterpart fund, which gives us a clear picture of the local farmers fragile livelihood. The national subsidy policy for land-conversion-f

27、or-forestry has time limits. Without improvement of local farmers livelihood status quo, it is impossible to consolidate the outcomes from land-conversion-for-forestry and sustainability of the outcomes cannot be guaranteed . Given the objective situation, it is a must to accommodate new watershed m

28、anagement strategy and update the mindsets. 2 Several Concepts and Application in Watershed Management-Way outl Comprehensive Watershed ManagementComprehensive Watershed Management is usually defined as rational combination of engineering measures. With regard to loess plateau, the watershed managem

29、ent strategy of “ mountains, water, land, forestry, road ” is the most representative. There is no doubt the strategy is correct from the perspective of engineering interventions adopted in watershed management aiming at soil& water conservation. Meanwhile, the watershed management strategy shou

30、ld have wider implications if it is viewed from the perspective of the objectives watershed management serves or the beneficiaries. The objectives watershed management serves or the beneficiaries not only include the people living upstream, but also the people living downstream. As for the people li

31、ving in the downstream of the Yellow River basin, their benefits are materialized through loess plateau eco-environment improvement in terms of watershed management, specifically, thanks to the watershed management measures, the sediment flows into the Yellow River has been reduced, resulting in mit

32、igation of sediment deposit in the River course and threat of flood. Since sediment deposit in the Yellow River is a more outstanding issue, eco-environment improvement is put at the core objective of soil& water conservation. But poverty is a more outstanding issue in a sub-watershed upstream,

33、poverty is an important cause of eco-environment degradation. For people living in the upstream watershed, getting rid of poverty is their top priority. Therefore, concerning the objective of watershed management, it should be comprehensive one, which determines the comprehensiveness of approaches.

34、A holistic strategy of both up- and downstream interests in mind should be adopted, the component of measures should be comprehensive, only through which can solve issues fundamentally. l Alternative Livelihoods StrategyLivelihood means the way one earns money to live on, broadly, it covers the mode

35、ls people make living and approaches people rely on. Alternative livelihood means people replace their old livelihood models or approaches with new ones. Peoples living and production standards are improving in parallel with the improvement of eco-environment. The alternative livelihoods strategy we

36、ll addresses the dual objectives of watershed management. The alternative livelihood combines the environment improvement with that of peoples living and production. World Bank Loess Plateau Watershed Rehabilitation Project and China Watershed Management Project are two paradigms of successful imple

37、mentation the concept. Graze ban is one important measure the project adopted, it aims at reducing soil& water loss by taking advantage of the natural rehabilitation capacity of vegetation to increase vegetation cover. Under the measures, freely open graze is forbidden. In reality, freely open g

38、raze is local peoples traditional livelihood model and is their main channel to increase their income. In order not to trigger negative impact on local peoples life while the graze ban is in place, the project financed local people to procure quality livestock, build animal pens, construct terrace a

39、nd plant grass for forage. With regard to plant measure, in line with local conditions, the projects provided suitable fruit tree seedlings for commercial forestry, local peoples income increased while improving vegetation coverage. In some places, the loess project financed green houses constructio

40、n for local people for their land-conversion-for-grass and provided training on vegetation growth. The implementation of the project provided opportunity for local people to adjust their livelihood structure, not lowering farmers living level, but boosting their income tremendously, as a matter of f

41、act. And at the same time, the vegetation cover are well restored, noticeably improving the vegetation coverage. The sustainability of project outcomes is guaranteed. The concept of alternative livelihood specifically shows the spirit of putting people first. It is not so difficult to image that the

42、 graze ban could be a total failure if it were forcibly enforced, at the expense of sacrificing farmers economic interest to materialize the project objective. Even the graze ban succeeded, it could not stand long, the benefit could not be sustainable. Since the ultimate goal of watershed management

43、 is to serve human, the project measures should put guaranteeing and promoting peoples survival and development in the territory of watershed on the top concern. The goal of watershed management is to materialize sustainable development. Sustainable development should be all-together development of

44、the targeting group watershed management serves. The alternative livelihood complies with the common development concept, with caring peoples livelihood as entry point to improve eco-environment. From the perspective of watershed management goal, the concept well combines eco-environment benefits wi

45、th economic benefits and the interest of upstream with that of downstream, under which the sustainability of watershed management benefits are effectively guaranteed. It can be deduced that alternative livelihood is an evitable choice of watershed management approach. Alternative livelihood strategy

46、 is not an expedient, not compensation methods for the people living in the sub-watersheds for pursuing the single objective of environment improvement. Adoption of alternative livelihood is determined by the ultimate goal of watershed management. The alternative livelihood strategy helps materializ

47、e the win-win of eco-environment improvement and peoples production and living standard elevation. The improvement of eco-environment gives the key to solving natural resources sustainable use while the issue of development is solved through the improvement of livelihood models. It can be concluded

48、that the concept of alternative livelihood is the scientific concept to materialize sustainable development in the real sense. l Participatory The participatory concept refers to the participation of all stakeholders in watershed management practice, in particular, the joint participation of househo

49、lds in communities in watershed management activities, including sub-watershed comprehensive management planning formulation, the implementation and management of watershed management activities. The reason why households joint participation in communities is emphasized is that they are the direct u

50、sers of resources in the sub-watersheds and also the targeting beneficiaries of comprehensive watershed management. Only through their participation can the planning fully reflect farmers intention. The application of participatory concept will make the content of the planning more targeting, in par

51、ticular, it is the case in terms of addressing farmers top concerns. Under the participatory concept, bottom-up watershed management method is adopted rather than the traditional top-down one, which boosts project ownership of households and thus lays a sound foundation for project smooth implementa

52、tion and provides favorable social environment for the post-project management and sustainability of project benefits.In the process of participation, all the participants are equal bodies, enjoying equal speech right, and the sub-watershed development content and measures as well as development pri

53、orities are determined in a democratic manner. Hence, from the perspective of social science, the participatory concept advances the process of democracy. Meanwhile, it also promotes the fairness of community development. Take CWMP as an example, the project applied participatory approach for target

54、ing the poor and the vulnerable, the poor and the vulnerable identified by PA enjoyed preferential policies, enabling them share the benefits from the project. In the practice of applying PA, it is emphasized to engage female participating. On the one hand, male farmers go out for work, the female b

55、ecome the standing residents; on the other hand, the social science research shows that only materialization of females progress and development can the social progress and development be assured. Women participation boosts their self-confidence and social status, which will promote overall progress

56、 of the society. The application of PA is conducive to deepening farmers understanding of watershed management objectives and fostering relevant awareness. For instance, under CWMP, the awareness of environment-friendly livelihood and the interactive relationship between environment and livelihood a

57、pproaches were established in farmers minds through their participating in such activities as drawing “Problem Tree” and “Objective Tree”. “Problem Tree” is tree-like diagram used to reflect existing problems while “Objective Tree” is a direct tool to show the outputs of solutions by a tree-like dia

58、gram which come from analysis. Both “Problem Tree” and “Objective Tree” are a vivid name for tree-like expression format in the stages of analyzing and solving problems. First, let the farmers speak out the difficulties existing in their production and life or issues restricting the communitys devel

59、opment by using brainstorm. Under experts facilitation, find out the root causes to these problems and label them at the roots of “Problem Tree”. Then, it comes to convert the “Problem Tree” into “Objective Tree”. Guide the farmers to discuss and propose the solutions to these problems, categorize the solutions and put them on the trunks of the tree, hanging the fruits of corresponding specific measures on branches.