跨文化交際學(xué)知識點(唐德根版)

1、Chapter One Introduction to Intercultural CommunicationHuman being draw close to one another by their common culture, but habits and customs keep them apart. -Confucian Saying1. Definition ：Intercultural Communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are

2、distinct enough to alter the communication event.2. A short history of intercultural communication2.1 The Burgeoning PeriodThe term “Intercultural communication” itself did not appear until Halls The silent language was published in 1959. 2.2 From 1960 to 1970a. Two preventative books reflect the co

3、ntinuous efforts made by scholars in the field in the 1960s:b. Olives Culture and Communication (1962) and Smiths Communication and Culture (1966)c. The first college class in this field taught in 1966 at the University of Pittsburgh.2.3 From 1971 to 1980a. The 1970s witnessed rapid development in t

4、he field of intercultural communication. b. In 1973, Samovar and Porter published Intercultural Communication: A readerc. Indiana University awarded the first doctoral degree in intercultural communication.d. Condon and Yousefs Introduction to Intercultural Communication (1975)2.4 From 1981 to the P

5、resent Timea. Condon and Yousefs stress on cultural value orientations and communication behavior parallels b. Hofstedes (1984) later work on cultural valuesc .Halls writing on high-context and low-context cultures in Beyond Culture (1977).d. Scholars in the early 1970s began to make their contribut

6、ions in research and teaching by the 1980s.3. Importance of Intercultural CommunicationThree developments 3.1 The new technology3.2 The new Population3.3 The new Economic Arena4. Studying Intercultural CommunicationWe have met the enemy, and he is us. -Pogo Three main obstacles:First, Culture lacks

7、a distinct crystalline structure; it is often riddled with contradictions and paradoxes.Second, Culture cannot be manipulated or held in check; therefore, it is difficult to conduct certain kinds of research on this topic.Third, we study other cultures from the perspective of our own culture, so our

8、 observations and our conclusions are tainted by our orientation. 5. Intercultural CommunicationThe main conceptions in intercultural communication:Intercultural communication: Face-to-face communication between people from differing cultural backgrounds. Intercultural communication is defined as th

9、e extent to which there is shared interpersonal communication between members of the same culture.5.1 Host and Minority CultureThe host culture is the mainstream culture of any one particular country.Minority cultures: cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation to the host cultu

10、re.5.2 Subcultures (Co-cultures)Subculture: a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.E.G. : Black American; Native American; Hispanic- American, Chinese-American, etc.5.3 MulticulturalismMulticulturalism is the official recognition of a countrys cultural and ethnic diversi

11、ty (Hollway, 1992)5.4 Cross-cultural Communication1.Cross-cultural communication is face-to-face communication between representatives of business, government and professional groups from different cultures. 2.Diplomacy is one of the oldest forms of cross-cultural communication. Travel and tourism i

12、s a second form of cross-cultural communication. 3.A third form of cross-cultural communication unique to this has been the growth of the mass media. Most recently, cross-cultural communication has been accelerated by cross-border information flows brought about by computerization.5.5 Principles of

13、Intercultural CommunicationCondon has highlighted three areas as most problematic in intercultural exchange:1.Language barrier2.Different values 3.Different patterns of behaviors. (Condon & Saito, 1974)5.6 RationaleWorldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions:First,

14、 changes in technology, travel, economic and political systems, immigration patterns, and population density have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. Second, ones cultural perceptions and experiences help determine how one sends and receives message

15、s.5.7 Approach1.Fundamental to our approach to intercultural communication is the belief that all forms of human communication involve action. 2.This book takes a view of intercultural communication that is both pragmatic and philosophical. 5.8 PhilosophyFirst, it is to the advantage of all 5.5 bill

16、ions of us who share the planet to improve our interpersonal and intercultural communication abilities.Second, most of the obstacles to understanding can be overcome with motivation, knowledge, and appreciation of cultural diversity.Activities: Right or Wrong? You need to learn to accept and like ot

17、her cultures. You need to respect the validity of other cultures. Underneath, people are fundamentally the same. Culture is pervasive. I can do exactly what I want. My actions are independent of my culture. I dont have total freedom of choice in my behavior. Culture and ethnicity are the same. If we

18、 have more contact, intercultural understanding will improve. Cultural worth is in the eye of the beholder. The perceptions of the individual relate to the perceptions of the group.Chapter Two Language Use and Communication You cannot speak of ocean to a well-fog, -the culture of a narrow sphere. Yo

19、u cannot speak of ice to a summer insect,-the creature of a season. -Chang TsuCommunication:1.our ability to share our ideas and feelings2.is the basis of all human contact.1. Human Communication1.1 Intentional and Unintentional BehaviorThe first one describes communication as the process whereby on

20、e person deliberately attempts to convey meaning to another. The second school of thought proposes that the concept of intentionality fails to account for all the circumstances in whichmessages are conveyed unintentionally. 1.2 A Definition of CommunicationCommunication occurs whenever meaning is at

21、tributed to behavior or the residue of behavior. 1.3 The Components of CommunicationA. The Source= B. Encoding = C. The Message= D. The Channel= E. The Receiver =F. Decoding = G. Feedback2. Pragmatics: Language Use2.1 The Problem(1) We must first distinguish between using language to do something an

22、d using language in doing something.e.g. Hello Goodbye Pass the salt. Please. How old are you? It s raining.(2) What is (successful) linguistic communication? How does (successful) communication work? 2.2 The Message Model of Linguistic of Linguistic CommunicationSpeaker HearerMessage Message Encodi

23、ng = Sounds = Decoding2.3 Problems with the Message ModelFirst, DisambiguationSince many expressions are linguistically ambiguous, the hearer must determine which of the possible meanings of an expression is the one the speaker intended as operative on that occasion.eg1, flying planes can be dangero

24、us.eg2, A: We lived in Illinois, but we got Milwaukees weather. B: Which was worseSecond, Underdetermination of referenceThird, underdetermination of communicative intent (by meaning)Fourth, nonliteralityFifth, indirectionSixth, noncommunicative acts2.4 An Inferential Approach to CommunicationThe ba

25、sic idea:linguistic communication is a kind of cooperative problem solving.The Inferential Model of communication proposes that in the course of learning to speak our language we also learn how to communicate in that language, and learning this involves acquiring a variety of shared beliefs or presu

26、mptions, as well as a system of inferential strategies.Presumptions: 1. Linguistic Presumption 2. Communicative presumption3.Presumption of literalness 4.Conversational presumption2.5 Inferential Theories versus the Message ModelSix specific defects:1. The Message Model cannot account for the use of

27、 ambiguous expressions2. Real world reference3. Communicative intentions4. Nonliteral communication5. Indirect communication6. Noncommunicative uses of language3. The Characteristics of Communication3.1 No Direct Mind-to-Mind ContactIt is impossible to share our feelings and experiences by means of

28、direct mind-to-mind contact.3.2 We can Only InferBecause we do not have direct access to the thoughts and feelings of other human beings, we can only infer what they are experiencing inside their individual homes, to continue our analogy.3.3 Communication Is SymbolicSymbols, by virtue of their stand

29、ing for something else, give us an opportunity to share our personal realities.3.4 Time-Binding Links Us Together3.5 We Seeks to Define the World3.6 Communication Has A Consequence 3.7 Communication Is Dynamic3.8 Communication Is Contextual 3.9 Communication Is Self-Reflective4. The Brain Is an Open

30、 SystemFirst, this concept of the brain alerts us that while each of us can learn new ideas throughout the life, what we know at any one instant is a product of what the brain has experienced.Second, the notion of the brain as an open system reminds us that we can learn from each other.Third, becaus

31、e learning is a lifelong endeavor, we can use the information to which we are exposed to change the way we perceive and interact with the world.5. We Are Alike and We Are DifferentWe are alike:First, everyone realizes at some point that life is finite.Second, each of us discovers somewhat early in l

32、ife that we are isolated from all other human beings.Third, all of us are thrown into a world that forces us to make choices. Finally, the world has no built-in scheme that gives it meaning.We are different:First, the external world impinges on our nerve endings, causing something to happen with us.

33、 Second, we think about what is happening by employing symbols from our past. Activities: Right or Wrong? Sophistication is a subjective concept which is “ in the eye of the beholder” Realize that your language reflects and influences the way you se the world. All cultures impose some constrains on

34、the body. Some language cant distinguish between the present and the past. All cultures express politeness by using words like “please” and “thank you”. All cultures have standards for politeness and ways of being polite. All cultures are concerned about face. This is what motivates politeness. The

35、concept of “face” is universal. Without it, there would be no politeness. Your way of showing that you are paying attention may be considered inappropriate by other cultures. All cultures require and value politeness, but the ways in which the politeness is achieved may vary significantly.Chapter Th

36、ree Culture and CommunicationCulture is the medium evolved by humans to survive. Nothing in our lives is free from cultural influence. It is the keystone in civilizations arch and is the medium through which all of lifes events must flow. We are culture. (Edward T. Hall)Culture also determines the c

37、ontent and conformation of the messages we send. This omnipresent quality of culture leads hall to conclude that “there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture” (Edward T Hall,1977)Culture and communication are so inextricably bound that most cultural anthropologis

38、ts believe the terms are virtually synonymous. This relationship is the key factor to understanding intercultural communication.Studying intercultural communication without studying culture would be analogous to investigation the topic of physics without looking at matter.In this chapter,We shall ex

39、plain why cultures develop, define culture, discuss the major components of culture, and link culture to communication by offering a model of intercultural communication that isolates the characteristics of culture most directly related to communication.1. Culture is our invisible teacher1.1 The bas

40、ic function of communicationPeople maintain cultures to deal with problems or matters that concern them.-William A HavilandIt serves the basic need of laying out a predictable world in which each of us is firmly grounded and thus enable us to make sense of our surroundings. Malinowski: three types o

41、f needs: Basic needs (food, shelter, physical protection) Derived needs (organization of work, distribution of food, defense, social control) Integrative needs (psychological security, social harmony, purpose in life)1.2 Some Definitions of CultureE. Adamson Hoebel and Everett Frost: culture is an “

42、integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not the result of biological inheritance (Hoebel and Frost, 1976.6) For them, culture is not genetically predetermined or instinctive.” First, as all scholars of culture believe, culture

43、 is transmitted and maintained solely through communication and learning, culture is learned.Second, scholars who take the sweeping view believe, each individual is confined at birth to a specific geographic location and thus exposed to certain messages while denied others.e.g. Geert Hofstede, a psy

44、chological perspective, defining culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another”(Hofstede,1984). Both of these definitions stress the mental conditioning that culture experiences impose. Daniel Bates and Fred Plog: culture is

45、 a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the member of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning. This definition included not only patterns of behaviors but also patterns of

46、 thought (shared meaning that the member of a society attach to various phenomena, natural and intellectual, including religion and ideologies), artifacts (tools, pottery, house, machines, works of art), and the culturally transmitted skills and techniques used to make the artifacts (G.Bates, 1990,

47、7)We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through indiv

48、idual and group striving. Culture can therefore include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul.1.3 The Characteristics of CultureA. Culture is innate; its learned. 1. Without the advantage of learning from those who lived before us, we should not have culture. You can appreciate, t

49、herefore, why we say that learning is the most important of all the characteristics of culture. 2. Bates and Plog note: whether we feed ourselves by growing yams or hunting wild game or by herding camels and raising wheat, whether we explain a thunderstorm by attributing it to meteorological conditi

50、ons or to a fight among the godssuch thins are determined by what we learn as part of our enculturation (Bates and Plog,1990,19). The term enculturation denotes the total activity of learning ones culture. As Hoebel and Frost say, “conscious or un conscious conditioning occurring within that process

51、 whereby the individual, as child and adult, achieves competence in a particular culture”3. Enculturation takes place through interaction (your parents kiss you and you learn about kissing whom to kiss, when to kiss, and so on ), observation (you watch your father do most of the driving of the famil

52、y car and you learn about gender roles what a man does, what a woman does), and imitation (you laugh at the same jokes your parents laugh at and you learn about humor it is funny if someone slips as long as he or she does not get hurt).e.g. The mouth maintains silence in order to hear the heart talk

53、. This saying expresses the value Belgians place on intuition and feelings in interaction.He who speaks has no knowledge, and he who has knowledge does not speak. This saying from Japan reinforces the value of silence.We concluded our description of the first characteristic of culture by reminding y

54、ou of how our discussion directly relates to intercultural communication.First, many of the behaviors we label as cultural are only automatic and invisible, but also engaged in without our being aware of them. Second, common experience produces common behaviors. B. Culture is transmitted from Genera

55、tion to GenerationFor culture to exist and endure, they must endure that their crucial message and elements are passed on. Richard Brislin: if there are values considered central to a society that have existed for many years, there must be transmitted from one generation to another. (Brislin,1993,6)

56、. This idea supports our assertion that culture and communication are linked: it is communication that makes culture a continuous process, for once culture habits, principles, values, attitudes, and the like are “formulated” they are communicated to each individual. The content of culture is what ge

57、ts transferred from generation to generation.e.g. American tell each generation to always look forward. In China, the message is to look to the past for guidance and strength.For Mexicans and Native Americans, the message is that cooperation is more important than the contest.In Korea, the message is to respect and treasure the elderly. C . Culture is based on SymbolsOur symbolmaking ability enable us to both learn our culture and pass it on from individual to individual, group to group, and generation to generation.The portabi