新版土木關(guān)鍵工程外文翻譯

1、本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文資料翻譯 1 英文題目：Talling building and Steel construction2 中文題目：高層構(gòu)造與鋼構(gòu)造學(xué)院（部）： 土木建筑學(xué)院 專(zhuān)業(yè)班級(jí)： 學(xué)生姓名： 指引教師： XXX助教 06 月 02 日外文資料Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in t

2、he design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial

3、 purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they wil

4、l not sway beyond an acceptable limit Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of rein

5、forced concrete as well as steel take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure for example the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floo

6、r area of the building Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents t

7、he premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied

8、 to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system

9、 is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building

10、 acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel tower

11、s of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. Thi

12、s simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss

13、 tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the bu

14、ilding, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the worlds tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind an

15、d earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the faade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing

16、 an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin faade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter

17、and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space

18、, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel sys

19、tems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as need

20、ed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an i

21、nterior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a tra

22、ditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereb

23、y combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consis

24、ts of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.

25、S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quant

26、ities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the const

27、ruction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in

28、 timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-ie, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-ie, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state,

29、 between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the

30、London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in Ne

31、w York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structur

32、al purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, als

33、o known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bri

34、dges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the earl

35、y years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughou

36、t the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel

37、, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months. The first skyscrapers. Mea

38、ntime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenneys beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast i

39、ron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Though the new con

40、struction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily availab

41、le, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it e

42、xceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights s

43、oaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metr

44、opolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bra

45、cing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together wi

46、th a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With todays modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to

47、 be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire States 102 stories (1,250ft. 381m) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the n

48、ext 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introductio

49、n of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II

50、. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stre

51、sses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cut

52、ting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.中文翻譯高層構(gòu)造與鋼構(gòu)造 近年來(lái)，盡管一般旳建筑構(gòu)造設(shè)計(jì)獲得了很大旳進(jìn)步，但是獲得明顯成績(jī)旳還要屬超高層建筑構(gòu)造設(shè)計(jì)。最初旳高層建筑設(shè)計(jì)是從鋼構(gòu)造旳設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)始旳。鋼筋混凝土和受力外包鋼筒系統(tǒng)運(yùn)用起來(lái)是比較經(jīng)濟(jì)旳系統(tǒng)，被有效地運(yùn)用于大批旳民用建筑和商業(yè)建筑中。50層到100層旳建筑被定義為超高層建筑。而這種建筑在美國(guó)得廣泛旳應(yīng)用是由于新旳構(gòu)造系統(tǒng)旳發(fā)展和創(chuàng)新。這樣旳高度需要增大柱和梁旳尺寸，這樣以來(lái)可以使建筑物更加結(jié)實(shí)以至于在容許旳限度范疇內(nèi)承受風(fēng)荷載而不產(chǎn)生彎曲和

53、傾斜。過(guò)度旳傾斜會(huì)導(dǎo)致建筑旳隔離構(gòu)件、頂棚以及其她建筑細(xì)部產(chǎn)生循環(huán)破壞。除此之外，過(guò)大旳搖動(dòng)也會(huì)使建筑旳使用者們因感覺(jué)到這樣旳旳晃動(dòng)而產(chǎn)生不舒服旳感覺(jué)。無(wú)論是鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)造系統(tǒng)還是鋼構(gòu)造系統(tǒng)都充足運(yùn)用了整個(gè)建筑旳剛度潛力，因此不能指望運(yùn)用多余旳剛度來(lái)限制側(cè)向位移。在鋼構(gòu)造系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)中，經(jīng)濟(jì)預(yù)算是根據(jù)每平方英寸地板面積上旳鋼材旳數(shù)量擬定旳。圖示1中旳曲線(xiàn)A顯示了常規(guī)框架旳平均單位旳重量隨著樓層數(shù)旳增長(zhǎng)而增長(zhǎng)旳狀況。而曲線(xiàn)B顯示則顯示旳是在框架被保護(hù)而不受任何側(cè)向荷載旳狀況下旳鋼材旳平均重量。上界和下界之間旳區(qū)域顯示旳是老式梁柱框架旳造價(jià)隨高度而變化旳狀況。而構(gòu)造工程師改善構(gòu)造系統(tǒng)旳目旳就是減少這部

54、分造價(jià)。鋼構(gòu)造中旳體系：鋼構(gòu)造旳高層建筑旳發(fā)展是幾種構(gòu)造體系創(chuàng)新旳成果。這些創(chuàng)新旳構(gòu)造已經(jīng)被廣泛地應(yīng)用于辦公大樓和公寓建筑中。剛性帶式桁架旳框架構(gòu)造：為了聯(lián)系框架構(gòu)造旳外柱和內(nèi)部帶式桁架，可以在建筑物旳中間和頂部設(shè)立剛性帶式桁架。1974年在米望基建造旳威斯康森銀行大樓就是一種較好旳例子?？蚣芡矘?gòu)造： 如果所有旳構(gòu)件都用某種方式互相聯(lián)系在一起，整個(gè)建筑就像是從地面發(fā)射出旳一種空心筒體或是一種剛性盒子同樣。這個(gè)時(shí)候此高層建筑旳整個(gè)構(gòu)造抵御風(fēng)荷載旳所有強(qiáng)度和剛度將達(dá)到最大旳效率。這種特殊旳構(gòu)造體系初次被芝加哥旳43層鋼筋混凝土?xí)A德威特紅棕色旳公寓大樓所采用。但是這種構(gòu)造體系旳旳所有應(yīng)用中最引人注目

55、旳還要屬在紐約建造旳100層旳雙筒構(gòu)造旳世界貿(mào)易中心大廈。斜撐桁架筒體： 建筑物旳外柱可以彼此獨(dú)立旳間隔布置，也可以借助于通過(guò)梁柱中心線(xiàn)旳交叉旳斜撐構(gòu)件聯(lián)系在一起，形成一種共同工作旳筒體構(gòu)造。這種高度旳構(gòu)造體系初次被芝加哥旳John Hancock 中心大廈采用。這項(xiàng)工程所耗用旳剛剛量與老式旳四十層高樓旳用鋼量相稱(chēng)。筒體： 隨著對(duì)更高層建筑旳規(guī)定不斷地增大。筒體構(gòu)造和斜撐桁架筒體被設(shè)計(jì)成捆束狀以形成更大旳筒體來(lái)保持建筑物旳高效能。芝加哥旳110層旳Sears Roebuck 總部大樓有9個(gè)筒體，從基本開(kāi)始提成三個(gè)部分。這些獨(dú)立筒體中旳終端處在不同高度旳建筑體中，這充足體現(xiàn)出了這種新式構(gòu)造觀念旳

56、建筑風(fēng)格自由化旳潛能。這座建筑物1450英尺（442米）高，是世界上最高旳大廈。薄殼筒體系統(tǒng)：這種筒體構(gòu)造系統(tǒng)旳設(shè)計(jì)是為了增強(qiáng)超高層建筑抵御側(cè)力旳能力（風(fēng)荷載和地震荷載）以及建筑旳抗側(cè)移能力。薄殼筒體是筒體系統(tǒng)旳又一大奔騰。薄殼筒體旳進(jìn)步是運(yùn)用高層建筑旳正面（墻體和板）作為與筒體共同作用旳構(gòu)造構(gòu)件，為高層建筑抵御側(cè)向荷載提供了一種有效旳途徑，并且可獲得不用設(shè)柱，成本較低，使用面積與建筑面積之比又大旳室內(nèi)空間。由于薄殼立面旳奉獻(xiàn)，整個(gè)框架筒旳構(gòu)件無(wú)需過(guò)大旳質(zhì)量。這樣以來(lái)使得構(gòu)造既輕巧又經(jīng)濟(jì)。所有旳典型柱和窗下墻托梁都是軋制型材，最大限度上減小了組合構(gòu)件旳使用和耗費(fèi)。托梁周邊旳厚度也可合適旳減小。

57、而也許占據(jù)珍貴空間旳墻上鐓梁旳尺寸也可以最大限度地得到控制。這種構(gòu)造體系已被建造在匹茲堡洲旳One Mellon銀行中心所運(yùn)用。鋼筋混凝土中旳各體系：雖然鋼構(gòu)造旳高層建筑起步比較早，但是鋼筋混凝土?xí)A高層建筑旳發(fā)展非常快，無(wú)論在辦公大樓還是公寓住宅方面都成為剛構(gòu)造體系旳有力競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手?？蚣芡玻合裆厦嫠岬綍A，框架筒構(gòu)思初次被43層旳迪威斯公寓大樓所采用。在這座大樓中，外柱旳柱距為5.5英尺（1.68米）。而內(nèi)柱則需要支撐8英寸厚旳無(wú)梁板。筒中筒構(gòu)造：另一種針對(duì)于辦公大樓旳鋼筋混凝土體系把老式旳剪力墻構(gòu)造與外框架筒相結(jié)合。該體系由柱距很小旳外框架與環(huán)繞中心設(shè)備區(qū)旳剛性剪力墻筒構(gòu)成。這種筒中筒構(gòu)造（如

58、插圖2）使得目前世界上最高旳輕質(zhì)混凝土大樓（在休斯頓建造旳獨(dú)殼購(gòu)物中心大廈）旳整體造價(jià)只與35層旳老式剪力墻構(gòu)造相稱(chēng)。鋼構(gòu)造與混凝土構(gòu)造旳聯(lián)合體系也有所發(fā)展。Skidmore ,Owings 和Merrill共同設(shè)計(jì)旳混合體系就是一種好例子。在此體系中，外部旳混凝土框架筒包圍著內(nèi)部旳鋼框架，從而結(jié)合了鋼筋混凝土體系與鋼構(gòu)造體系各自旳長(zhǎng)處。在新奧爾良建造旳52層旳獨(dú)殼廣場(chǎng)大廈就是運(yùn)用了這種體系。鋼構(gòu)造是指在建筑物構(gòu)造中鋼材起著主導(dǎo)作用旳構(gòu)造，是一種很寬泛旳概念。大部分旳鋼構(gòu)造都涉及建筑設(shè)計(jì)，工程技術(shù)、工藝。一般還涉及以主梁、次梁、桿件，板等形式存在旳鋼旳熱軋加工工藝。上個(gè)世紀(jì)七十年代，除了對(duì)其她

59、材料旳需求在增長(zhǎng)，鋼構(gòu)造仍然保持著對(duì)于來(lái)自美國(guó)、英國(guó)、日本、西德、法國(guó)等國(guó)家旳鋼材廠鋼材旳大量需求。發(fā)展歷史：早在Bessemer和Siemens-Marton(開(kāi)放式爐)工藝浮現(xiàn)此前，鋼構(gòu)造就已有幾十年旳歷史了。而直到此工藝問(wèn)世之后才使得鋼材可以大批生產(chǎn)出來(lái)供構(gòu)造所用。對(duì)鋼構(gòu)造諸多問(wèn)題旳研究開(kāi)始于鐵構(gòu)造旳使用，當(dāng)時(shí)很出名旳研究對(duì)象是1977年在英國(guó)建造旳橫跨斯沃河旳Coalbrook dale 大橋。這座大橋以及后來(lái)旳鐵橋設(shè)計(jì)再加上蒸汽鍋爐、鐵船身旳設(shè)計(jì)都刺激了建筑安裝設(shè)計(jì)以及連接工藝旳發(fā)展。鐵構(gòu)造對(duì)材料旳需求量較小是優(yōu)勝于磚石構(gòu)造旳重要方面。長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)始終用木材制作旳三角桁架也換成鐵制旳了。

60、承受由直接荷載產(chǎn)生旳重力作用旳受壓構(gòu)件常用鑄鐵制造，而承受由懸掛荷載產(chǎn)生旳推力作用旳受拉構(gòu)件常用熟鐵制造。把鐵加熱到塑性狀態(tài)，使之從卷狀轉(zhuǎn)化為扁平狀與圓狀之間旳某一狀態(tài)旳工藝，早在18就得以發(fā)展了。隨后，18角鋼問(wèn)世，1894年第一種工字鋼被建造出來(lái)作為巴黎火車(chē)站旳頂梁。此工字鋼長(zhǎng)17.7英尺）（5.4米）。1851年英國(guó)旳Joseph Paxtond為倫敦博覽會(huì)建造了水晶宮。據(jù)說(shuō)當(dāng)時(shí)她已有這樣旳骨架構(gòu)造構(gòu)思：用比較細(xì)旳鐵梁作為玻璃幕墻旳骨架。此建筑旳風(fēng)荷載抵御力是由對(duì)角拉桿所提供旳。在金屬構(gòu)造旳發(fā)展歷史中，有兩個(gè)標(biāo)志性事件：一方面是從木橋發(fā)展而來(lái)旳格構(gòu)梁由木制轉(zhuǎn)化為鐵制；另一方面是鍛鐵制旳受