大三英語詞匯學引論筆記

英語詞匯學引論筆記之“名詞解釋篇”Word---Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundmeaningandsyntacticfuntion.Morpheme---Amorphemeistheminimalsignificantelementinthecompositionofwords.FreemorphemesorContentmorphemes(Freeroot)---Theyaremorphemesthatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves:cat,walk.BoundMorphemesorGrammaticalmorphemes---Theyaremorphemesmustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,eitherboundorfree:Catts,walk+ing.Boundroot---Aboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot,itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.Take-dict-forexample:itconveysmeaningof"sayorspeak"asaLatinroot,butnotasaword.Withtheprefixpre-(=before)weobtaintheverbpredictmeaning"tellbeforehand".Affixes---Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomeaningorfuntion.InflectionalmorphemesorInflectionalaffixes---Affixesattachestotheendofwords to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known inflectionalmorphemes.Thereistheregularpluralsuffix -s(-es)whichisaddedtonounssuchasmachines,desks.DerivationalmorphemesorDerivationalaffixes---Derivationalaffixesaffixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.Prefixes---Prefixesareaffixesthatcomebeforetheword,suchas,pre+war.Suffixes---suffixesareaffixesthatcomeaftertheword,forinstance,blood+y.Derivationalmorphemes/derivationalaffixes---Aprocessofformingnewbytheadditionofawordelement.Suchasprefix,suffix,combingformtoanexistingword.Prefixation----istheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixorcombingformtothebase.(Itmodifythelexicalmeaningofthebase)Suffixation---istheformationofanewwordbyaddingasuffixorcombingformtothebaseandusuallychangingtheword-classofthebase.Suchasboy.Boyish(noun-adjective)Root---Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalysedwithouttotallossofidentity.OpaqueWords--Wordsthatareformedbyonecontentmorphemeonlycannotbeanalysedintopartsarecalledopaquewords,suchasaxe,glove.Transparentthatconsistofmorethanonemorphemesandcanbesegmentedintopartsarecalledtransparentwords:workable(work+able),door-man(door+man).Morphs--Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbyunitsknownasmorphs.Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning.Allomorps--Somemorphemesarerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpositioninaword.Suchalternativemorphsareknownasallomorphs.Forinstance,themorphemeofplurality{-s}hasanumberofallomorphsindifferentsoundcontext,e.g.incats/s/,inbags/z/,inmatch/iz/.DerivationorAffixation--Affixationisgenerallydefinedastheformationwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationalaffixestostems.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation.Prefixation--Prefixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixesstems.Suffixation--Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixesstems.isaprocessofword-formationbywhichtwoindependentwordsareputtogethertomakeoneword.E.g.hen-packed;short-sighted.Conversion--Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.Thisprocessofcreatingnewwordswithoutaddinganyaffixesisalsocalledzero-derivation.E.g.dry(a.)-->todry.Back-formation--isaprocessofword-formationbywhichawordiscreatedthedeletionofasupposedaffix.E.g.editorenteredthelanguagebeforeedit.Abbreviation(shortening)--isaprocessofword-formationbywhichsyllablesofwordsareabbreviatedorshortened.Abbreviationincludesfourtypes:I.ClippedwordsII.InitialismsIII.AcronymsIV.Blends.Clippedwords--arethosecreatedbyclippingpartofaword,leavingonlyaoftheoldword.E.g.telephone-->phone,professional-->pro.Initialisms--arewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordsandpronouncedletters.E.g.IMF/aiemef/=InternationalMonetaryFund.Acronyms--arewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordandpronouncedwords.E.g.NATO/'neito/=NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization.Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. smoke+fog=smog.Polysemy--Thesamewordmayhavetwoormoredifferentmeanings.Thisknownas"polysemy".Theword"flight",forexample,maymean"passingthroughtheair","powerofflying","airofjourney",etc.*Twoapproachestopolysemy:DiachronicandSynchronicDiachronically,westudythegrowthorchangeinthesemanticstructureofawordorhowthesemanticstructureofawordhasdevelopedfromprimarymeaningtothepresentpolysemicstate.Synchronically,weareinterestedinthecomparativevalueofindividualmeaningsandtheinterrelationbetweenthecentralmeaningandthesecondarymeanings.*Twoprocessesleadingtopolysemy:RadiationandconcatenationRadiation:Semanticalladiatistheprocesinwhichtheprimaryormeaningstandsatthesecondarymeaningsitineverydirectionlikerays.Concatenation:isasemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshifts,likethelinksofatherisnoconnectiobetweenthesensethaisfinalevelopedandtheprimarymeaning.Homonyms--argeneralldefinedaswordsdifferenmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingorinia，完全相同的』onlyinsoundorspelling.PerfectHomonyms--arewordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentingE.g.bearn.alargeheavyanimal;bearv.toputupwithHomographsinsoundandmeaning.E.g.sow/s3u/v.toscatterseedssow/sau/n.femaleadultpigHomophones--arwordsidenticnlyinsoundbutdifferenmeaning.E.g.dear/di3/n.alovedpersondeer/di3/n.akindofanimalSynonyms--cabedefineaswordsdifferensoundandspellinbutnearlyalikeorexactlythesameinmeaning.E.g.maid/girlTheyarethesamemeaningof"ayoungfemale".Absolute(Complete,wordswhicharemeaninginalitaspectsi.ebothingrammaticameaningandincludingconceptualandFor/compoundingTheyhavetheperfectsamemeaninginLexicology.Relative(near,partialsynonyms--aresimilarornearlythesameindenotation,butembracedifferentshadesofmeaningorquality.Takestagger/reel/totorexample.Staggerimpliesunsteadymovementcharacterizedbyalossofbalanceandfailuretomaintainafixedcourse.E.g.stagunderaheavyload;Reelsuggestsaswayingorlurchingsoastoappearonthevergeoffalling.E.g.Thedrunkenmanreeleddownthehall;Totterindicatestheuncertaifalteringstepsofafeebleoldpersonorofaninfantlearningtowalk.SourcesofSynonymsI.Borrowing:Native(ask)--French(question)--LatinandregionalEnglish:railway(BrE)--railroad(AmE)Figuratiea.andeuphemistoccupation--walkoflife(fig.)lie--distortthefact(euph.)Coincidencewithidiomaticexpressions:

useofwords:win--gaintheupperhandhesitate--beintwomindsDiscriminationofSynonymsDifferenceindenotation:differintherangeandintensityofmeaning.E.g.extend--increase--expand(range)want--wish--desire(intensity)Differenceinconnotation『n.涵義，含蓄』:differinthestylisticandemotivecolouring.E.g.ask(neutral);beg(colloquial);request(formal)Differenceinapplication:inusage.E.g.emptybox;vacantseatAntonymy--isconcernedwithsemanticopposition.Antonyms--arewordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.TypesofAntonymsContradictoryterms:mutuallyopposed;trueoppositenessofmeaning;possibilitybetween them; E.g.alive--dead;present--absentContraryterms:gradableE.g.rich--(well-to-do)--poor;hot--(warm,cool)--coldRelativeterms:relationaloppositenessE.g.parent--child;husband--wife;sell--buySemanticincompatibles:contrastingness.E.g.north,south,east,west;spring,summer,autumn,winter.Hyponymy--dealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Thatis,meaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralword.Thesespecificwordsareknownashyponyms.Forinstance,tulipandrosearehyponymsofflower.Thegeneralwordfloweristhesuperordinatetermandthespecificonestulipandrosearethesubordinateterms.Extensionofmeaning(generalization)--isatermreferringtothewideningofmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghas now become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted "painting",butnowhascometoinclude"drawings"andeven"photographs".Narrowingofmeaning(specialization)--isatermreferringtotheshrinkingofmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.E.g.WhengaragewasfirstborrowedfromFrench,itmeantsimply"anysafeplace"butnow"aplaceforstoringcars".Elevationor『n.--referstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningstopositionsofimportance.E.g.Marshalandconstablemeanta"keeperofhorses",butnowhaverisentoa"high-rankingarmyofficer"and"policeman"respectively.Degradationorpejorationofmeaning--Itisaprocesswherebywordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometobeusedinderogatorysense.E.g.Awenchwasa"countrygirl"andnowmeans"prostitute".Metaphor『n.隱喻』--isafigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparison,inwhichawordorphaseordinarilyandprimarilyusedofonethingisappliedtoE.g.theteethofacomb;bloodbank;Hehasaheartofstone;Thecurtainofnighthasfallen.Metonymy『n.借代』--isthedeviceinwhichwenamesomethingbyoneofitsattributes,asincrownforking,theWhiteHouseforthePresident.Thekettleisboiling.(kettleforwaterinthekettle)Synecdochen.--meansusingapartforawhole,anindividualforaclass,amaterialforathingorthereverseofanyofthese.Forexample,breadforfood,thearmyforasoldier.Heisapoorcreature.--creatureforman『n.--isaprocesswherebywordsarecreatedinimitationofotherwords.Forexample,telethonantalkathonarecreatedonthemodelofmarathon.Idiom--Strictlyspeaking,idiomsareexpressionsthatarenotreadilyunderstandablefromtheirliteralmeaningsofindividualelements.Forexample,offthehandle(becomeexcessivelyangry)andputupwith(tolerate).Inabroadidiomsmayincludecolloquialisms,catchphrases,slangexpressions,proverbs,etc.Chara