大學(xué)英語重點grammar1

EnglishGrammarCAIYIQIANG蔡以強WelcometothiscourseCourseassessmentA.平時成績

在總評成績中所占比例為40%。一般為上課的出勤情況、學(xué)習(xí)的態(tài)度，課堂表現(xiàn)、平時作業(yè)和/或合（協(xié)）作精神等。B.期末考試:60%RequirementsConductyourselfinanmaturemanneracceptableinandappropriatetoanadultclassroomandlearningenvironment;Regularattendance(Inordertoprovidethebestpossiblelearningenvironmentforallthepeopleinvolved,youshouldattendallthescheduledclasssessions.Absenceswillbepermittedonlyforreasonsacceptableunderthegeneralschoolpolicy;youshouldbeinclassroomandgetreadytobeginworkattheappointedstartingtime.Repeatedabsencesandlatenessarenotdesirable,likelytoresultinpoorgrade);Takenoteswheneverpossible;Youshouldsubmit,ontimeandintherequiredform,yourassignments,testsandexercisesrequiredofyou;Feelfreetoaskquestionsandmakesuggestions;Independentaccomplishmentofassignments;Readyresponsetofeedbackcommentsfromtheteacheroryourpeers;Activeparticipationinclassroomactivitiesandcooperativeprojects,suchasdiscussionandpresentation.Allinall,youshallbeassessedasperyour1)performanceinclasssessions,thequalityandcompletionofassignmentsifany,2)participationandcommitmenttotheclass,3)resultsonexaminations.

Lecture1IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarStudy

I.學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的必要性1.英語語法的內(nèi)涵英語語法就是關(guān)于形態(tài)變化和語言結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)范。/語法是語言組織規(guī)律的學(xué)問?，F(xiàn)代英語語法具有兩個特點：突破句子界限，開辟了話語和語篇結(jié)構(gòu)分析；語法研究深入到了語義和語用層面。2.語法與語言學(xué)習(xí)和運用的關(guān)系Swain指出，交際能力應(yīng)包括社會語言能力、話語能力、策略能力和語法能力。GeoffThompson認(rèn)為，那種一提到交際法就覺得是不講語法規(guī)則的認(rèn)識是對交際法的誤解。他說：“學(xué)語言必須學(xué)習(xí)語法是不言而喻的常識，這一點在前幾年受到質(zhì)疑是不可思議的?！彼M(jìn)一步認(rèn)為，應(yīng)有一定的課堂時間用來學(xué)習(xí)語法。Wilkins和Canale等學(xué)者都指出，只有掌握了語法知識才能保證語言創(chuàng)造性能力的發(fā)展，缺乏語法知識就會限制語言創(chuàng)造能力的發(fā)展。換言之，掌握好所學(xué)語言的語法規(guī)則是培養(yǎng)交際能力的基礎(chǔ)。

以寫作來說，同一個意思可以借助多種多樣的語言形式來表達(dá)。如果寫作者善于捕捉變體的機會，他就能最大限度地利用語言的表達(dá)潛力而不局限于陳規(guī)俗套和呆板句式，深刻體會到英語語法中五彩繽紛的選擇余地（見下例），就意味著具備在寫作中交替利用這些機會以達(dá)到不同修辭效果的強烈意識。1.ItisthefeelingofthePresidentthatthereareenormousresponsibilitieswhicharetobeassumedwithanofficeofpublictrust.←→ThePresidentfeelsthatagovernmenthasgreatresponsibilities…2.Doctorsofmedicineareofthesameopinionthatexcessiveconsumptionoffoodwillcausethedeteriorationofman’sphysicalconstitution.←→Overeating,thedoctorsagree,isharmfultohealth.3.Itwasn’tthatdifficult.Thetruthisthatwehadaball(slang).4.Itwon’tcostyouanarmandaleg.5.這一決策對增強信心、克服困難、穩(wěn)定經(jīng)濟正發(fā)揮著積極重要的作用。表述1）Thispolicystrengthenedconfidenceagainstdifficultiesandstabilizedeconomy,withpositiveimpacts.表述2）Thispolicyhasapositiveeffectonstrengthenedpublicconfidenceandstabilized….我們完全可以這么講，培養(yǎng)語言交際能力是目的，而掌握好語法規(guī)則是手段。因此，就讓語法發(fā)揮兩大作用：促進(jìn)理解；監(jiān)控輸出。3.外語學(xué)習(xí)外語學(xué)習(xí)與母語不同，因為外語學(xué)習(xí)者一般只有有限的時間和精力學(xué)習(xí)外語，又缺少使用外語的現(xiàn)實環(huán)境—自然習(xí)得環(huán)境，但他們卻可以通過掌握語法規(guī)則來指導(dǎo)自己理解語法系統(tǒng)的規(guī)律性和所學(xué)外語的特點。隨著對語言現(xiàn)象認(rèn)識的深入，研究者們發(fā)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)語中有些結(jié)構(gòu)、規(guī)則是該語言特有的，必須通過語法學(xué)習(xí)才能掌握?，F(xiàn)在盛行的交際教學(xué)法也將語法教學(xué)納入其組成部分。

4.現(xiàn)狀高校英語專業(yè)培養(yǎng)的人才，應(yīng)具有扎實的聽、說、讀、寫、譯的能力，這些能力不僅包括語言表達(dá)的流利性，更包括表達(dá)的準(zhǔn)確性。傳統(tǒng)的語法翻譯法為了追求準(zhǔn)確性，過分強調(diào)語法規(guī)則的灌輸，犧牲了語言的流利程度。隨后有學(xué)者如Krashan認(rèn)為語法知識必須在與目標(biāo)語的接觸中潛意識地習(xí)得，不主張有意識地學(xué)習(xí)語法。事實證明這一做法有些矯枉過正?，F(xiàn)在的學(xué)習(xí)者開得了口，但往往錯誤百出。二語學(xué)習(xí)者尤其如此。大多數(shù)語法教材仍然停留在羅列語法規(guī)則的階段，而不是以有意義的方式告訴學(xué)生在何時、何地、何種場合下使用哪些規(guī)則，也不講明在某種情況下某種語言形式具有特有的意義。這些規(guī)則不單單是通過記憶就可以習(xí)得掌握好的。II．語法教學(xué)的過程1.語法學(xué)習(xí)方法介紹

語法課旨在幫助學(xué)生喚起語法意識、梳理原有的知識，進(jìn)一步介紹知識，指導(dǎo)學(xué)生進(jìn)行歸納總結(jié)，進(jìn)而對英語語法有一個系統(tǒng)的掌握，提高其語法運用的能力。2.呈現(xiàn)語言點這一方法旨在有意識地引導(dǎo)學(xué)生認(rèn)識英語的某些特征。一般從學(xué)生熟悉的、可理解的材料入手，并逐漸過渡到不熟悉的形式。語法教學(xué)可用如下幾個步驟進(jìn)行。填充法LastnightImetGeorge---youknow,theboy___wasatschoolwithmeyearsago.Well,helivesinthecountrynow,inavillage____isnotfarfromNottingham.Andhe’smarriedLiz,thegirl___fatherhadthatsmallshopinLexingtonAvenue…anyway,Georgehasboughtacottage,___costhimafortuneand___heisgoingtoopenaguesthouse.(2)轉(zhuǎn)換法主動→被動；限定句→非限定句；陳述句→倒裝句→存在句(3)造句法(4)辨識法：找出特定的語言現(xiàn)象(5)討論分析法本步驟旨在把潛意識的、零星的語法信息提升為有意識的、系統(tǒng)的能力。采用以老師為主導(dǎo)、以學(xué)生為中心的方法。(6)練習(xí)運用法1)口頭方式2)綜合方式綜合方式包括轉(zhuǎn)換練習(xí)、情景會話（roleplay）、合句練習(xí)（見下）等。WaldenPondisnowthesiteofmanytouriststands./Almosteverysummernightthecoolingnortheastwindsweptthroughourbedroomwindows.Itmadeairconditioningunnecessary.Itmadealightblanketwelcome.→WaldenPond,oncepraisedbyThoreauforitsnaturalbeauty,isnowthesiteofmanytouriststands./Almosteverysummernightthecoolingnortheastwindsweptthroughourbedroomwindows,makingairconditioningunnecessaryandalightblanketwelcome.(Sweepingthroughourbedroomsalmosteverysummernight,thecoolingnortheastwindmade…3.英漢比較呂叔湘先生曾經(jīng)指出：“一種事物的特點，要跟別的事物比較才能顯現(xiàn)出來。拿漢語和英語比較，漢語的特點和英語的特點就都顯現(xiàn)出來了。這種比較，對于教學(xué)很有用。”通過比較，學(xué)習(xí)者知道在那些方面容易受到干擾，容易出錯，從而幫助學(xué)習(xí)者使用英語，如翻譯、寫作等。例如：①Lookingoutofthewindow,thegrasslandstretchesasfarastheeyecanreach.②Onenteringtheclassroom,thestudentsstoodupandsaid,“Goodmorning,Sir.”③Shewasacceptednotbecausebutinspiteofherbirth.她不是因為她的出身而被接受，也非因為她的出身而被拒絕。④Itserveshimright.⑤Mr.Priestleyisgivinghisstudentsalesson.⑥JohnisnowwithhisparentsinNewYork;itisalreadythreeyearssincehewasabandmaster.(since從句中的過去式was是指一種狀態(tài)的結(jié)束。)。。。他不再任樂隊指揮已經(jīng)三年了。（1）英漢相異之處語言負(fù)載文化的同時受文化的制約，其中就包括不同民族思維方式對語法的制約(Johnwasafoolfordanger./Aseriesofmisfortunevisitedthefamily.)，主要體現(xiàn)在語法范疇的差異和句法的差異這兩個層次上。例如，英語的語法范疇中有：性、數(shù)、人稱、時、體、態(tài)等，而且都有明顯的形式標(biāo)記，漢語則主要借助詞匯手段和語序來表達(dá)這些概念。在句法方面，英語有較強的形式邏輯特點，句式的完整性、句法的標(biāo)記性，與漢語反映整合思維的流水句、意合法結(jié)構(gòu)有相當(dāng)大的差異。非下苦功夫不可。（約翰天不怕地不怕的。）請看下面一篇無多少生詞的短文：DianeDisneyMillerrecallsasurprisingdiscoveryshemadeasachild:Ididn’trealizewhatmyfatherdidforalivinguntilIwassix.Thenaplaymateatschooltoldme.ThatnightwhenFathercamehome,hefloppeddownintohiseasychair.Iapproachedhimwithawe.Hedidn’tlookfamoustome.Iasked,“AreyouWaltDisney?”“YouknowIam,”hesaid.“TheWaltDisney?”Iinsisted.Helookedstartled;thenhegrinnedandnodded.WhereuponIsaidthefivewordshemusthavethoughthewassafefrominthebosomofhisfamily:“Pleasegivemeyourautograph.”問題：⑴DianeDisneyMiller是WaltDisney的什么人？⑵根據(jù)上下文，WaltDisney何許人也？----他女兒。/----有名的人，蓋因“我滿懷敬畏地走到他跟前。但是看來他不像個有名之人?！边@兩句。⑶為什么WaltDisneylookedstartled?他怕的是什么？為何他以為在家里就safefromthefivewords?再看名定實狀之例：Thequalityandquantityofmerchandiseshipped,althoughspecifiedinthedocumentssubmittedtothebankasrequiredbytheletterofcreditterms,ultimatelydependsonthehonestyandintegrityofthesellerwhohasmanufactured,packaged,andarrangedforshipmentofthemerchandise./Youmustexcuseus,doctor,wehaveherinthekitchenwhereitiswarm.（2）語言意識：ANewPerspectiveonGrammarTeaching

Theroleofgrammariscontroversialinlanguagepedagogy.DifferentELTpractitionershavedifferentviewsonit.Grammarusedtobethemainfocusinthegrammar-translationmethodandtheaudio-lingualmethod.TheriseofCommunicativeLanguageTeachinghasreduceditsrolesincethe1970.Formanyyears,grammarhasbeenneglectedintheEnglishclassroom.

NowthependulumhasswungbackagainbecauseoftherecognitionoftheweaknessintheCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.Acallforgrammarasthe“theFacilitator”hasbeensuggested.Inotherwords,anewgrammarteachingapproachisneededtomakegrammarameanstolanguageacquisition.Inrecentyears,theAwareness-raisingapproachhasbeensuggestedasaninnovationonlanguageteaching.LanguageAwareness(LA)aimstodevelopaperson’ssensitivitytoandawarenessoflanguage,tounderstandhowlanguagerelatestothemostcentralactivitiesinourlifefromlearningtothinkingandtosocialrelationship,andtobuilduptheabilitytoviewalanguageobjectivelyasaphenomenon.LAmayactasabridgetobetterlanguagelearningandasaprerequisiteforefficientlanguagestudy.Inotherwords,LAisabletoserveasaprincipledprocessormechanismthatwillallowstudentstocapitalizeontheirknowledgeofEnglishforcommunicatingandlearningpurposes.Studentsareexpectedtodevelop:1)explicitandconsciousattentiontothesystematicorganizationoflanguage;2)explicitandconsciousknowledgeandskillsofthesourceoftheirexperienceoflanguage;3)powerfulobservationandanalysisoflanguage.CartersuggeststhatLAteachingneedstoinvolveatleast:1)awarenessofpropertiesoflanguageincludingitscreativityanddoublemeanings;2)awarenessoftheembeddingoflanguagewithinculture,thatis,tolearnaboutthelanguage,forexampleidiomsandmetaphorscanrevealalotabouttheculture;3)awarenessofthecloserelationshipbetweenlanguageandideology,thatis,toseehowdifferentlanguagechoicesencodedifferentideologies;4)agreaterself-consciousnessabouttheformsofthelanguageinuse,andtorecognizetherelationsbetweentheformsandmeaningofalanguage.TheAwareness-raisingapproachisdesignedtomakestudentsmoresensitivetogrammarinuse,moreactiveingrammarlearning;moreattentivetogrammaticalfeaturesinlanguageuse.（3）錯誤例示1）InspiteofthefrequentinterruptionImanagedtosticktotheprogram./Thelivelychatwaspunctuatedbyshoutsandlaughters.---burstsoflaughter/ItisonlyinrecentyearsthatChinalags--laggedbehind.2）Theteacherwouldbehappyifyoumadeprogress,whileyouwouldbecriticizedifyoudidn’t.3）Wehavealottocomplainandregret./Thisisagoodplacetoliveinandstudy.4）Thishopeofminewasnotrealizedatmygraduationfromtheuniversity.5）Ihopetomakesomeperceptibleprogressinthenextfiveyears,eachyearreachinganewgoal.1）詞形錯誤；2）虛詞錯誤；3）及物與不及物；4）選詞錯誤；5）主語錯誤意義錯誤1）對象錯誤：Wehavealargepopulationtorear.2）內(nèi)涵錯誤：IhavegrownallergictousageofEnglish./ThenecessitywillcompelmetoraisetheChineselevel/Owingtomyfather,Ihadagoodpre-schooleducation.(4)語法教學(xué)的任務(wù)型設(shè)計1）語法化任務(wù)(grammaticalization)選取新聞標(biāo)題，讓學(xué)生理解并用一兩句符合英語語法規(guī)則的完整句概括新聞內(nèi)容作為新聞導(dǎo)語，然后讓他們對照原新聞導(dǎo)語，分析比較兩種版本的語法結(jié)構(gòu)的異同。Good-lookingDoBetterinExams---TheSundayTimes,July9,2006→Beautymaybemorethanskindeepafterall.Newresearchsuggeststhatgood-lookingpeopledobetterinexamsandthusprobablyinlaterlife,thantheplainordownrightugly.分析：常用一般現(xiàn)在時、將來時和現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時；被動意義由過去分詞直接表示，常省略一些成分。2）短文聽寫與重建3）句子組合改寫任務(wù)：將一篇或一段簡單句文字組合成復(fù)雜句，不改變原意。如《英語學(xué)習(xí)》2003.7一輕松讀物名為TheUnfortunateThief。老師可先將其改為簡單句：①Carllosthisjob.Hetriedtofindanotherone.Itwasn’teasy.Thepoorfellowcouldn’tpayhisbills.Hehadsolittlemoney.Hecouldn’taskanybodytolendhim.②Carlspenthisdaysathome.Helookedoutofthewindow.Hewatchedhisneighour’shouse.Anoldprofessorlivedtherealone.Henevertalkedtohisneighbours.Carlcouldseeintotheprofessor’shouse.Theprofessorneverdrewthecurtain.Theprofessor’sroomswerefullofantiquefurnitureandvases.原文：Carllosthisjob.Hetriedtofindanotheronebutitwasn’teasy.Thepoorfellowcouldn’tpayhisbillsbecausehehadsolittlemoney,andhecouldn’taskanybodytolendhim.Carl,spendinghisdaysathome,lookedoutofthewindowandwatchedhisneighbour’shouse.Anoldprofessorlivedtherealone.Henevertalkedtohisneighbours.Carlcouldseeintotheprofessor’shousebecauseheneverdrewthecurtain.Theroomswerefullofantiquefurnitureandvases.4）短文改寫5)發(fā)現(xiàn)法：教師引導(dǎo)下的“發(fā)現(xiàn)法”←→“教師講解法”。通過上下文教授語法比對語法進(jìn)行講解和操練更加可取。《新概念英語》（1997）可以說是把語法教學(xué)與課文教學(xué)最有效地結(jié)合起來的典范。它用一個個有趣的小故事、生動的情節(jié)把原本枯燥無味的語法點串起來，一個小故事重點介紹一個語法點，使學(xué)習(xí)者在情景、意義、趣味中體會言語的用法。(5)任務(wù)式英語語法教學(xué)I.意義：Widdowson在AspectsofLanguageTeaching（1990）中指出，語法是協(xié)調(diào)詞匯和語境的一種工具。Cullen在TeachingEnglishasaLiberatingForce一文中指出：語法可被視為一種交際資源。語言使用者采掘語法資源以表達(dá)其觀念和態(tài)度，語言使用者對某種語法結(jié)構(gòu)的使用屬于個人選擇。如：Carrdrewadistinctionbetweentwoquitedifferentandwarringphilosophicaltraditionswhichdominatededucationresearch.Pring,however,arguesthatsuchdichotomiesbetweenquantitativeandqualitativeresearchareafalsedualism.過去時的使用意味著Carr的觀點已不再具有廣泛性，甚至過時；與之相對的現(xiàn)在時的使用表明Pring的主張是當(dāng)下領(lǐng)域的主流派，也是作者的觀點。(6)總的原則：1）實用性2)規(guī)范性與發(fā)展性3)理論性與應(yīng)用性4）專題性（解決陌生或疑難）我們認(rèn)為，正確的做法是應(yīng)該把對語法規(guī)則的講解和培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的交際能力有機地結(jié)合起來，不能只停留在對語法規(guī)則的講解上或只進(jìn)行語言輸入，不講規(guī)則。Lecture2SentenceStructure

I.SubjectandpredicateGenerally,afull-fledgedsentence/clausefallsintotwoparts:thesubjectandthepredicate.1.Basicclausetypes:SVC,SV,SVA,SVO,SVOA,SVOC,SVoO.a.Thecarismine./Sheisingoodcondition./Theseflowerssmellfragrant.b.Ironrusts./Theguestshavearrived./Thepricesaregoingdown.c.Thetrainleavesatsix./HelivesinChongqing.d.HespeaksGermanquitewell.e.Icouldanswerthatquestion.f.Wemadehimourspokesman./Theyelectedhimpresident./Thedirectorsappointedhimsalesmanager.g.Marylentmeabook./Imademyselfacupoftea.II.Typesofsentences1.TheperiodicsentencesInmanyways,thehistoryofEnglishwordsisthehistoryofourcivilization.Accordingtonewspaperreports,afterwinningtheOlympicgoldmedalforfigureskating,shewasofferedaprofessionalcontract.2.Simple,Compound,ComplexandCompound-ComplexSentences1)Thesimplesentence---single-verbcombinationThemotherisdressingherbaby.Thepartyendedearly.Helosthiswalletlastweek.Thecitywasdestroyedbytheearthquake.RalphandLindaaresittingunderthetree.Heisreadingandwritingatthesametime.Mary,Luwella,andMikelubricatedmycar,replacedtheoilfilter,andcleanedthesparkplugs.2)Thecompoundsentence-----MADEupoftwoormoresimplesentences,usuallyconnectedbyacommaplusajoiningword(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet)Theheavyrainstartedsuddenly,sowestoppedplantingourtrees.Frankwantedtogoswimming,butMarydecidedtogoshopping.JaneworksintheFamilyPlanningClinicandherhusbandSmithdoesresearchworkforthesameunit.3)Thecomplexsentence---MADEupofasimplesentenceandastatementthatbeginswithadependentword.Oneideaistoputmoreemphasisononethanonanother.BecauseIforgotthetime,Imissedtheplay.WhileSuzanwaseatingthefish,shebegantofeelsick.Icheckedmypaperagainbefore…WhenCindylosthertemper,shealsolosthermanner.Although…4)Thecompound-complexsentence---MADEupoftwoormoresimplesentencesandone(ormore)dependentstatements.Inthefollowingexamples,asolidlineisunderthedependentstatement.Whenthepowerlinesnapped,Jackwaslisteningtothestereo,andLindawasreadinginbed.AfterIreturnedtoschoolfollowingalongillness,themathteachermademedrophercourse.Pre-studyExercise:Itseemsthecattleonthesidesofthedykes(was,were)theonlylivingcreaturesinthesedesolatesurroundings.Themilitia(was,were)calledouttoguardtheborderland.Theaudience(is,are)listeningtoaBeethovensymphony.TheBoardofDirectors(is,are)shaking(its,their)headsattheChairman’sspeech.Thepoultry(was,were)imported.Alotofmachinery(was,were)madebythemselves.Thepoultry(is,were)keptinthebackyard.Thepublic(was,were)convincedofhisinnocence.Lecture3Subject-verbConcordI.Guidingprinciples:Therearethreeprinciplesguidingsubject-verbconcord,whichareprinciplesofgrammaticalconcord,notionalconcordandproximity.1.Grammaticalconcord:It,asamajorprinciple,referstotherulethattheverbmustmatchitssubjectinnumber,eg:Bothboyshavetheirownmerits./Everygirlcomesontime./Mucheffortiswasted.2.Notionalconcord:Itreferstotherulethattheverbcansometimesagreewiththesubjectaccordingtothenotionofnumberratherthantotheactualpresenceofthegrammaticalmarkerforthatnotion,eg:Thegovernmenthaveaskedthecountrytodecidebyavote./Fifteenmilesseemslikealongwalktome.3.Proximity:Itdenotesagreementoftheverbwithaclose-lyprecedingnounphraseinpreferencetoagreementwiththeheadofthenounphrasethatfunctionsassubject,eg:Eithermybrothersormyfatheriscoming./Nooneexcepthisownsupportersagreewithhim./NeitherJulianorIamgoing.4.Troublemakers4.1.1Diseaseandgamenamesendingin–s:Namesofdiseasesendingin–saremostlytreatedassingular,butthereareafewsuchnamessuchasmeasles,arthritis,mumps,bronchitis,diabetesandrickets

thatcanbeusedeitherassingular(moreoften)orasplural.Gamenamesendingin–saregenerallyusedassingularwiththeexceptionofcardswhichareusuallytreatedasplural.4.1.2Subjectnamesendingin–ics:Namesofsubjectsendingin–icsaregenerallysingularnouns,butsomeofwhicharetreatedaspluralwhenusedinothersensesthansubjectnames,eg:Acousticsisthescienceofsound.←→Theacousticsinthenewconcerthallarefaultless./Theeconomicsisarequiredcourseforallthestudents.←→Theeconomicsoftheprojectarestillbeingconsidered.4.1.3Geographicalnamesendingin–s:Geographicalnamessuchasthenamesofcountries,mountainranges,straitsandfallsaregenerallyusedasaplural,exceptforafewtreatedassingularwhenusedascountrynames,eg:TheHimalayashaveamagnificentvarietyofplantandanimallife./TheTaiwanStraightsarepeaceful,whichisablessingforthepeopleacrossthethem./InearlyJanuary1976,theNetherlandswashitbyitsworststormsince19Othernounsendingin–s:Namesforthingsmadeoftwopartssuchasscissors,pincers鉗子,shorts,etcareusuallyusedasplural.Butwhentheyareprecededbysuchunitnounsasapairofandtwopairsof,thenumberformofthefollowingverbisgenerallydeterminedbythenumbermarkeroftheunitnoun.Nounsusuallytakingpluralendingssuchasarchives,arms,clothesandfireworksaregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionofwhereabouts,dramatics,etcwhichmaybetreatedeitheraspluralorassingular.Nounsendingin–ingssuchasclippings,diggings,etc,aregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionoftidingswhichcanbeusedbothways.Therearealsonounssuchasbarracks,headquartersandmeanswhosesingularandpluralnumbersharethesameform.Thesenounsaretreatedaspluralwhenusedinthepluralsense,orviceversa.4.2Collectivenounsassubject4.2.1Collectivenounsusedasplurallikepeople,police,cattle,militia,poultry,vermin,etc.Domesticcattleprovideuswithmilk,beefandhides.4.2.2Collectivenounsusuallyusedassingularlikemachinery,equipment,furniture,merchandise,etc.4.2.3Collectivenounsusedeitheraspluralorassingularlikeaudience,class,family,etc.Theanti-crimecommitteeistomakeareporttomorrow.←→Thecommitteearedividedinopinionaboutthisproblem.4.2.4Inspecialslikeacommitteeof/aboardof/apanelof,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform,eg:Theboardofdirectorsisresponsibleforthemanagementofthecompany.

主謂不一致現(xiàn)象透視I.正式用法：1.深層同一：Hiswarmestadmirerandseverestcriticwashiswife.→←Hiswifewashiswarmestadmirerandseverestcritic.//Hisagedservantandthesubsequenteditorofhiscollectedpaperswas/werewithhimathisdeath-bed.2.不同成分的混合體：Whiskyandsodaismyfavouritedrink.→←Myfavouritedrinkiswhiskyandsoda.3.復(fù)數(shù)概念：Whatmakeseachdivisiondifferentareafewsimplethings---time,place,traditionandleadership.→←Afewsimplethings---time,place,traditionandleadership,arewhatmakeseachdivisiondifferent./Thegovernmenthavebrokentheirpromises./Thisgroupplaceconsiderableemphasisonthecontextualnatureoflearning,anddonotdrawgeneralizationsfromthephenomenaobservedtothepopulationatlarge.4.整體概念：Fivedollarsistoomuchtopayforabookinthatcondition./Threemonthspassesinnotimeatallonsuchatour./Seniorcitizensmeans,incommonparlance,peopleoversixty./Acarandabicycleisabsolutelynecessary.5.1+1=1：Everysegmentofourpopulationandeveryindividualhasarighttoexpectfromhisgovernmentafairdeal---HarryTruman6.假朋友：Inalmosteverygroup,politicsisacontroversialsubject.→←Radicalpolitics(policies)wereoffensivetotheFederalists./Theauthor’spoliticshavealsobeenresponsibleforhiscurrentexile./TheCedars(thecouple)hasahugegarden.7.Hisfamily,whoaregreatmusicians,haveallreceivedtheireducationinParis.→←Hisfamily,whichisaverydistinguishedone,cantraceitshistorybacktotheMiddleAges.II.非正式用法：1.復(fù)數(shù)概念：Neitherradionortelevisionprovideadequatenewscoverage./JohnandMarywillhavetowalk,neitherofthemhaveboughttheircars./Neitherhenorhiswifehavethefaintestideaofwhatliesbeyondit./Everyone,includingDr.HattahimselfandPravdaandtheNewYorkTimes,agreeonourpoint.2.虛位主語（常由here,there,where等引導(dǎo)）：Here’sJohnandMary./There’ssomechildrenatthedoor./Offtobed,there’sgoodchildren.3.偽就近原則：Thoseboys---oneorotherofthemhaveleftthedooropen./AnoutstandingfeatureofallDepartmentsaremanwell-supportedpostgraduatecourses.4.隨便文體：There’stwopatientsinthewaitingroom.Lecture5NounsandNounPhrasesI.Classificationofnounsandfunctionofnounphrases1.Classification---simple,compoundandderivativenouns;Properandcommonnouns;Countandnoncountnouns2.Functionofnounphrases---subject,subjectcomplement,object,objectcomplement,appositive,prepositionalcomplementation,adverbial(Ireturnedlastnight.),conjunction(Aphotoistakeneachtimethisbuttonispushed.)3.NumberformsofnounsLecture6DeterminersDeterminersincludearticles,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns,demonstrativedeterminers,relativedeterminers,interrogativedeterminers,indefinitedeterminers,cardinalandordinalnumerals,fractionalandmultiplicativenumerals,andotherquantifiers.2.1Collocationsbetweendeterminersandnouns2.1.1Determinerswithallthreeclasses(singularcountnouns,pluralcountnounsandnon-countnouns)ofnouns:possessive,genitive,definitearticlesaswellassome,any,no,theother,andwhose.2.1.2Determinerswithsingularcountnounsonly—a(n),one,another,each,every,either,neither,manya,sucha2.1.3Determinerssuchascanonlycollocatewithpluralcountnounsonly---both,two,three,etc,anothertwo/three,many,(a)few,several,these,those,a(great)numberof2.1.4Determinerswithnon-countnounsonly---alittle,abit,agreatamountof,agreatdealof,much,less,least2.1.5Determinerswithsingularandpluralcountnounsonly:thefirst,thesecond,thelast,thenext2.1.6Determinerswithsingularandnon-countnounsonly:this,that2.1.7Determinerswithpluralandnoncountnounsonly:alotof,plentyof,enough,most,such,other2.2Collocationsbetweendeterminers2.2.1Centraldeterminers,predeterminersandpostdeterminersArticles,demonstrativedeterminers,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns;some,any,no,every,each,either,neither,enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose,etc.Theyaremutuallyexclusive.All,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,etc;one-third,two-fifths,etc.what,such.Theyarealsomutuallyexclusive.

Many,much,few,little,fewer,less,more(andtheirsuperlativeform),several,plentyof,alotof,agreat/large/goodnumberof,agreat/gooddealof,alarge/smallamountof;such.2.2.2Wordorderofthreesubclassesofdeterminers:predeterminer+centraldeterminer+postdeterminer:allthefourstudents/alltheselastfewdays/bothhistwosisters/bothhisparents/hislastfewwords/threeothergirls

Multiplechoice:determiners1.Isaw___boysatthecinema.a.thebothb.halfac.boththed.theseveral2.___candidatesaregirls.

a.Halftheb.Thehalfc.Theirhalfd.Halfa3.Hewasonleave___days.a.thefewlastb.fewanotherc.fewotherd.thelastfew4.Pleaseserveme___soup.a.moresomeb.thelessc.morethed.somemore5.___factorsshouldbeconsidered.a.Theseallb.Suchallc.Allsuchd.Somethese6.Theyarenotlikelytoagreeto___propositions.a.otheranyb.otherallc.allotherd.otherthese7.Hehasbeenstayingathome___days.a.thesealllastfewb.theselastfewallc.alltheselastfewd.theselastallfewLecture6Determiners(II)--Articles

Lecture7VerbsandVerbPhrasesIClassificationofverbs1.Mainverbsandauxiliaries(primary,modalandsemi-auxiliaries)2.Transitive,intransitiveandlinkingverbs3.Dynamicandstativeverbs(be,have,applyto,belongto,differfrom,cost,weigh,measure,fit,hold,lack,resemble;assume,believe,consider,detest,fear,hate,hope,imagine,know,like,love,mean,mind,notice,prefer,regret,remember,suppose,think,understand,want,wish)4.Single-wordverbsandphrasalverbsPhrasalverbsfallintothreecategories：Verb+preposition;Verb+adverbparticle(breakout);Verb+adverbparticle+preposition(comedownwith)5.Finiteverbsandnon-finiteverbs6.RegularandirregularverbsII.Asurveyoftense,aspect,voiceandmood1.Tenseandaspect:Tenseisagrammaticalformassociatedwithverbsthattellsoftime;thatistosay,tenseandtimeareatoncerelatedanddifferent.Timeisauniversalconceptwiththreedivisions:past,presentandfuturetime.Aspectasagrammaticaltermindicateswhetheranactionorstateatagiventimeisviewedascompleteorincomplete.Englishverbshavetwoaspects:theprogressiveandtheperfectiveaspects.漢語語法學(xué)者對時態(tài)和時間的表述時間是人類共有的概念，分為過去、現(xiàn)在和將來三段?！肮灿小币庵赋稣Z言范疇(extra-linguistic)，不依賴任何語言而存在。因此，時間屬于人類的思維范疇，而時態(tài)才屬于語法范疇。//（時態(tài)是語法范疇，不同的語言有不同的時態(tài)系統(tǒng)；時間是獨立于語言的概念，具有普遍性。2.Activevoiceandpassivevoice3.Indicativemood,imperativemoodandsubjunctivemoodIII.Usesoftenseandaspect1.Simplepresent:timelesspresent;habitualpresent;futurepresent(hope,bet,seetoit,makesure,ifclause);2.Simplepast:pasteventandpasthabit;attitudinalandhypotheticalpast3.Presentprogressive:actioninprogress;futurehappening;othermeanings4.Pastprogressive:actioninprogressinthepasttime(includingpasthabitualactionorfuturityinthepast);othermeanings5.Presentperfective6.Pastperfective(includingsentenceswithwhen-/before-/after-until-/since-clauses)Perfectiveaspectisoftenaccompaniedbyasince-phraseorasince-clausetodenoteacontinuousstateoractivityfromapointinthepasttimeuntilnow.Theverbiscommonlythesimplepastofadynamicverbdenotingnon-continuousactivity.Ifthemainverbinthesuperordinateclauseisintheformof“Itbe+complement(denotingatimespan)+since-clause”,theverbbeinthemainclausemayoccurinthesimplepresentinplaceofthepresentperfective,e