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/FrancisBaconOfStudies(弗朗西斯·培根的論學習)FrancisBaconOfStudies(弗朗西斯·培根的論學習)

這是英國語言大師培根(1561-1626)的一篇隨筆,文字精煉,含義深邃。

Studiesservefordelight,forornament,andforability.Theirchiefusefordelight,isinprivatenessandretiring;forornament,isindiscourse;andforability,isinthejudgementanddispositionofbusiness.

讀書足以怡情,足以傅彩,足以長才。其怡情也,最見于獨處幽居之時;其傅彩也,最見于高談闊論之中;其長才也,最見于處世判事之際。Forecpertandexecute,andperhapsjudgeofparticulars,onebyone;butthegeneralcounsels,andtheplotsandmarshallingofaffairs,comebestformthosethatarelearned.Tospendtoomuchtimeinstudiesissloth;tousethemtoomuchforornament,isaffectation;tomakejudgementwhollybytheirrules,isthehumourofascholar.

練達之士雖能分別處理細事或一一判別枝節(jié),然縱觀統(tǒng)籌,全局策劃,則舍好學深思者莫屬。讀書費時過多易惰,文采藻飾太盛則矯,全憑條文斷事乃學究故態(tài)。

Theyperfectnature,andareperfectecbyexperience:fornaturalabilitiesarelikenaturalplants,thatneedproyningbystudy;andstudiesthemselvesdogiveforthdirectionstoomuchatlarge,excepttheybeboundedinbyexperience.讀書補天然之不足,經(jīng)驗又補讀書之不足,蓋天生才干猶如自然花草,讀書然后知如何修剪移接,而書中所示,如不以經(jīng)驗范之,則又大而無當。

Craftymencontemnstudies,simplemenadmirethem,andwisemenusethem;fortheyteachnottheirownuse;butthatisawisdomwithoutthem,andabovethem,wonbyobservation.

有一技之長者鄙讀書,無知者羨讀書,唯明智之士用讀書,然書并不以用處告人,用書之智不在書中,而在書外,全憑觀察得之。

Readnottocontradictandconfute;nortobelieveandtakeforgranted;nortofindtalkanddiscourse;buttoweighandconsider.

讀書時不可存心詰難讀者,不可盡信書上所言,亦不可只為尋章摘句,而應推敲細思。

Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested;thatis,somebooksaretobereadonlyinparts;otherstoberead,butnotcuriously;andsomefewtobereadwholly,andwithdiligenceandattention.Somebooksalsomaybereadbydeputy,andextractsmadeofthembyothers;butthatwouldbeonlyinthelessimportantarguments,andthemeanersortofbooks;elsedistilledbooksare,likecommondistilledwaters,flashythings.

書有可淺嘗者,有可吞食者,少數(shù)則須咀嚼消化。換言之,有只需讀其部分者,有只須大體涉獵者,少數(shù)則須全讀,讀時須全神貫注,孜孜不倦。書亦可請人代讀,取其所作摘要,但只限題材較次或價值不高者,否則書經(jīng)提煉猶如水經(jīng)蒸餾,淡而無味。

Readingmakethafullman;conferenceareadyman;andwritinganexactman.Andtherefore,ifamanwritelittle,hehadneedhaveagreatmemory;ifheconferlittle,hehadneedhaveapresentwit;andifhereadlittle,hehadneedhavemuchcunning,toseemtoknowthathedothnot.

maketh:make的第三人稱用法ready:即ready-witted,指敏于思考的能力。doth:do的第三人稱單數(shù)用法讀書使人充實,討論使人機智,筆記使人準確。因此不常做筆記者須記憶力特強,不常討論者須天生聰穎,不常讀書者須欺世有術,始能無知而顯有知。

Historiesmakemenwise;poetswitty;themathematicssubtile;naturalphilosophydeep;moralgrave;logicandrhetoricabletocontend.Abeuntstudiainmorse.

讀史使人明智,讀詩使人靈秀,數(shù)學使人周密,科學使人深刻,倫理學使人莊重,邏輯修辭之學使人善辯;凡有所學,皆成性格。

Naythereisnostandorimpendimentinthewit,butmaybewroughtoutbyfitstudies:likeasdiseasesofthebodymayhaveappropriateexercises.Bowlingisgoodforthestoneandreins;shootingforthelungsandbreast;gentlewalkingforthestomach;ridingforthehead;andthelike.Soifaman’’switbewandering,lethimstudythemathematics;forindemonstrations,ifhiswitbecalledawayneversolittle,hemustbeginagain.Ifhiswitbenotapttodistinguishorfinddifferences,lethimstudytheschoolmen;fortheyarecyminisectores.Ifhebenotapttobeatovermatters,andtocalluponethingtoproveandillustrateanother,lethimstudythelawyers’’cases.Soeverydefectofthemindmayhaveaspecialreceipt.

人之才智但有滯礙,無不可讀適當之書使之順暢,一如身體百病,皆可借相宜之運動除之。滾球利睪腎,射箭利胸肺,慢步利腸胃,騎術利頭腦,諸如此類。如智力不集中,可令讀數(shù)學,蓋演題需全神貫注,稍有分散即須重演;如不能辯異,可令讀經(jīng)院哲學,蓋是輩皆吹毛求疵之人;如不善求同,不善以一物闡證另一物,可令讀律師之案卷。如此頭腦中凡有缺陷,皆有特效可醫(yī)。MottosbyBacon(培根格言錄)Beautyisassummerfruits,whichareeasytocorrupt,andcannotlast;andforthemostpartitmakesadissoluteyouth,andanagealittleoutofcountenance

美猶如盛夏的水果,是容易腐爛而難保持的,世上有許多美人,她們有過放蕩的青春,卻迎受著愧悔的晚年。Naturalabilitiesarelikenaturalplants,thatneedpruningbystudy;andstudiesthemselvesdogiveforthdirectionstoomuchatlarge,excepttheybeboundedinbyexperience.

天生的能力好像天然生成的植物,必須通過學習加以修整;然而學習本身如若不由實踐去約束,必然方向紛雜而漫無目的。Virtueislikearichstone,bestplainset

美德好比寶石,在樸素背景的襯托下反而更華麗。LordFrancisBacon,(1561-1626)

thefatherofexperimentalphilosophy,whosefatherhadbeenLordKeeper,andhimselfwasagreatmanyyearsLordChancellorunderKingJamesI.Nevertheless,amidsttheintriguesofaCourt,andtheaffairsofhisexaltedemployment(BecauseofbriberyandextortionhewassentencedbytheHouseofLordstopayafineofaboutfourhundredthousandFrenchlivres,tolosehispeerageandhisdignityofChancellor.),whichalonewereenoughtoengrosshiswholetime,heyetfoundsomuchleisureforstudyastomakehimselfagreatphilosopher,agoodhistorian,andanelegantwriter;andastillmoresurprisingcircumstanceisthathelivedinanageinwhichtheartofwritingjustlyandelegantlywaslittleknown,muchlesstruephilosophy.LordBacon,asisthefateofman,wasmoreesteemedafterhisdeaththaninhislifetime.HisenemieswereintheBritishCourt,andhisadmirerswereforeigners.

FrancisBacon(1561-1626)wasthefounderofEnglishmaterialistphilosophy(唯物主義哲學).HewasbornintothefamilyofSirNicholasBacon,keeperofthePrivySeal(御璽)toQueenElizabeth.TheboyearlywonthefavoroftheQueen.HewenttoCambridgeattwelveandaftergraduatingatsixteen,tookuplaw.Hesoonbecameoneofthemostsuccessfullawyersofthetime.Attwenty-threehebecameamemberoftheHouseofCommons(下議院)andhisjudgmentandeloquence(口才)madehimfamous.WhenJamesIcametoEngland,BaconobtainedoneimportantofficeafteranotheruntilhebecamelordChancellor(大法官)andwasmadeapeer(nobleman)in1618.Hewasanadmirablejudge,butinthecourseofrisinghehadmadeenemieswhochargedhimwithbribery(受賄).Hewasconvicted(判罪)deprived(免去)ofhisoffice,finedandbanished(流放)fromLondonin1621.Fiveyearslater,hediedindisgrace(恥辱).

FrancisBacon,lawyer,statesman,philosopherandmasterofEnglishtongue,isfamousnotonlyforhisphilosophicalworks,butalsoforhisessays.In1597hepublishedacollectionoftenessays,whichwereafterwardsincreasedtofifty-eight,includingthewell-knownone“OnReading”,whosetitleisactually“OfStudies”.Theseessayscoverawidevarietyofsubjects,suchaslove,truth,friendship,parentsandchildren,beauty,studies,youthandageandmanyothers.Theyhavewonpopularityforhisclearness,brevity(簡短)andforceofexpression.Manyofhissentenceshavebecomewiseoldsayings—“Menfeardeathaschildrenfeartogointhedark,”

“Readingmakesafullman;conferenceaready(敏捷的)man,andwritinganexactman”.培根被認為是現(xiàn)代科學時代的始祖。他是第一個意識到科學技木能夠改造世界面貌的哲學家,熱情支持實驗科學研究。

l561年,培棍生于倫敦。他是英國伊麗莎白女王時代一高級職員的長子。12歲入劍橋大學三一學院,但不久離開那里,沒有獲得大學畢業(yè)證書。16歲開始工作,隨英國駐注大使去巴黎在使館工作過一段時間。18歲時父親去世,沒留下什么錢,培根被迫去上學學習法律。21歲開始從事律師業(yè)。23歲時被選為英國下議院議員。伊麗莎白女王向議會提出增加稅收計劃,培根表示反對通過這個提案,女王因而討厭培根,培根成了伊西克斯的朋友和參謀。伊西克斯是個貪婪的貴族分子,同情培根,他決定發(fā)動反對伊麗莎白女王的政變。培根勸告他應該忠于女王,但伊西克斯不聽,政變以失敗而告終。因為培根在伊西克斯受審及被判死刑一案中起了某種作用,致使各階層人民對培根有些不滿情緒。

1603年,伊麗莎白女王去世,培根當上繼任國王詹姆斯一世的顧問,雖然詹姆斯—世沒有受培根勸言的約束,但卻很喜歡他。因此在詹姆斯一世執(zhí)政期間,培根平步青云,節(jié)節(jié)高升,1617年擔任掌璽大臣,1618年就任大法官,1620年受封為子爵。

不期災難降臨了。培根被指控受賄,其實受賄在當時已是司空見慣,絕非新鮮,但培根在議會里的勁敵抓住這個機會,將他趕出了官場。培根對受賄供認不諱,被判在倫敦塔坐牢,交付大批罰金,終生禁止做官。但國王釋放了他,免除了他的罰金,培根只不過喪失了政治生命。培根這樣評論議會決定:“我是英國50年來最公正的法官,而議會對我的判決是200年來議會所作出的最公正的判決?!?/p>

培根的若干著作為他贏得了聲譽。他的第一部著作《論說文集》發(fā)表于1597年。這部著作用辛辣評論風格寫成,但卻閃閃發(fā)光,引入入勝,在世界流傳極廣。即本精品文摘。

培根的最偉大的哲學著作之一名叫《偉大的復興》。該著作包括6個部分,已完成的部分有:序言、《新工具》(對一種新的邏輯方法的描述)、《自然史和實驗史概論》組體現(xiàn)了整理某些觀點及不同風格的科學和哲學沉思錄.

培根從1605年起開始寫作,但沒有完成的《科學推進論》被認為是自亞里士多德時代以來最偉大的著作。

美德好比寶石,在樸素背景的襯托下反而更華麗。同樣,一個打扮并不華貴,卻端莊嚴肅而有美德的人是令人肅然起敬的。美貌的人并不都有其他方面的才能。許多容貌俊秀的人卻一無所有,他們過于追求外形的美而放棄了內在的美。仔細分析起來,形體之美要勝于顏色之美,而優(yōu)雅行為之美又勝于形體之美。最高的美是畫家所無法表現(xiàn)的。因為它是難以直觀的。這是一種奇妙的美,曾經(jīng)有兩位畫家――阿皮雷斯和丟勒滑稽地認為,可以按照幾何比例,或者通過攝取不同人身上最美的特點,加以合成的方法,畫出最完美的人像。其實像這樣畫出來的美人,恐怕只有畫家才喜歡。有些老人顯得很可愛,因為他們的作風優(yōu)雅而美?!懊廊说倪t暮也是美的?!倍M管有的年輕人具有美貌,卻由于缺乏優(yōu)美的修養(yǎng)而不配得到贊美。美有如盛夏的水果,而容易腐爛而難保持的,世上有許多美人,他們有過放蕩青春,卻迎受著愧悔的晚年。因此,把美的形貌與美的德行結合起來吧。只有這樣,美會放射出真正的光輝。

弗蘭西斯·培根(FrancisBacon,1561-1626)——英國著名的唯物主義哲學家和科學家。他在文藝復興時期的巨人中被尊稱為哲學史和科學史上劃時代的人物。馬克思稱他是“英國唯物主義和整個現(xiàn)代實驗科學的真正始祖?!钡谝粋€提出“知識就是力量”的人。

一.培根生平

培根于1561年1月22日出生于倫敦一個官宦世家。父親尼古拉.培根是伊麗莎白女王的掌璽大臣,曾在劍橋大學攻讀法律,他思想傾向進步,信奉英國國敦,反對教皇干涉英國內部事物。母親安尼是一位頗有名氣的才女,她嫻熟的掌握希臘文和拉丁文,是加爾文教派的信徒。良好的家庭教育使培根成熟較早,各方面都表現(xiàn)出異乎尋常的才智。12歲時,培根被送入劍橋大學三一學院深造。在校學習期間,他對傳統(tǒng)的觀念和信仰產(chǎn)生了懷疑,開始獨自思考社會和人生的真諦。

在劍橋大學學習三年后,培根作為英國駐法大使埃米阿斯.鮑萊爵士的隨員來到了法國,在旅居巴黎兩年半的時間里,他幾乎走遍了整個法國,接觸到不少的新鮮事物,汲取了許多新的思想,這對他的世界觀的形成起到了很大的作用。1579年,培根的父親突然病逝,他要為培根準備日后贍養(yǎng)之資的計劃破滅,培根的生活開始陷入貧困。在回國奔父喪之后,培根住進了葛萊法學院,一面攻讀法律,一面四處謀求職位。1582年,他終于取得了律師資格,1584年當選為國會議員,1589年,成為法院出缺后的書記,然而這一職位竟長達20年之久沒有出現(xiàn)空缺。他四處奔波,卻始沒有得到任何職位。此時,培根在思想上更為成熟了,他決心要把脫離實際,脫離自然的一切知識加以改革,把經(jīng)驗觀察、事實依據(jù)、實踐效果引入認識論。這一偉大抱負是他的科學的“偉大復興”的主要目標,是他為之奮斗一生的志向。

1602年,伊麗莎白去世,詹姆士一世繼位。由于培根曾力主蘇格蘭與英格蘭的合并,受到詹姆士的大力贊賞。培根因此平步青云,扶搖直上。1602年受封為爵士,1604年被任命為詹姆士的顧問,1607年被任命為副檢察長,1613年被委任為首席檢察官,1616年被任命為樞密院顧問,1617年提升為掌璽大臣,1618年晉升為英格蘭的大陸官,授封為維魯蘭男爵,1621年又授封為奧爾本斯子爵。但培根的才能和志趣不在國務活動上,而存在與對科學真理的探求上。這一時期,他在學術研究上取得了巨大的成果。并出版了多部著作

1621年,培根被國會指控貪污受賄,被高級法庭判處罰金四萬磅,監(jiān)禁于倫敦塔內,終生逐出宮廷,不得任議員和官職。雖然后來罰金和監(jiān)禁皆被豁免,但培根卻因此而身敗名裂。從此培根不理政事,開始專心從事理論著述。

1626年3月底,培根坐車經(jīng)守倫敦北郊。當時他正在潛心研究冷熱理論及其實際應用問題。當路過一片雪地時,他突然想作一次實驗,他宰了一只雞,把雪填進雞肚,以便觀察冷凍在防腐上的作用。但由于他身體孱弱,經(jīng)受不住風寒的侵襲,支氣管炎復發(fā),病情惡化,于1626年4月9日清晨病逝。培根死后,人們?yōu)閼涯钏?,為他修建了一座紀念碑,亨利·沃登爵士為他題寫了墓志銘:

圣奧爾本斯子爵

如用更煊赫的頭銜應

稱之為“科學之光”、“法律之舌”

二.培根的哲學思想

培根的哲學思想是與其社會思想是密不可分的。他是資產(chǎn)階級上升時期的代表,主張發(fā)展生產(chǎn),渴望探索自然,要求發(fā)展科學。他認為是經(jīng)院哲學阻礙了當代科學的發(fā)展。因此他極力批判經(jīng)院哲學和神學權威。他還進一步揭露了人類認識產(chǎn)生謬誤的根源,提出了著名的“四假相說”。他說這是在人心普遍發(fā)生的一種病理狀態(tài),而非在某情況下產(chǎn)生的迷惑與疑難。第一種是“種族的假相”,這是由于人的天性而引起的認識錯誤;第二種是“洞穴的假相”是個人由于性格、愛好、教育、環(huán)境而產(chǎn)生的認識中片面性的錯誤;第三種是“市場的假相”,即由于人們交往時語言概念的不確定產(chǎn)生的思維混亂。第四種是“劇場的假相”這是指由于盲目迷信權威和傳統(tǒng)而造成的錯誤認識。培根指出,經(jīng)院哲學家就是利用四種假相來抹煞真理,制造謬誤,從而給予了經(jīng)院哲學沉重的打擊。但是培根的“假相說”滲透了培根哲學的經(jīng)驗主義傾象,未能對理智的本性與唯心主義的虛妄加以嚴格區(qū)別。

培根認為當時的學術傳統(tǒng)是貧乏的,原因在于學術與經(jīng)驗失去接觸。他主張科學理論與科學技術相輔相成。他主張打破“偶像”,鏟除各種偏見和幻想,他提出“真理是時間的女兒而不是權威的女兒”,對經(jīng)院哲學進行了有力的攻擊。

培根的科學方法觀以實驗定性和歸納為主。他繼承和發(fā)展了古代關于物質是萬物本源的思想,認為世界是由物質構成的,物質具有運動的特性,運動是物質的屬性。培根從唯物論立場出發(fā),指出科學的任務在于認識自然界及其規(guī)律。但受時代的局限,他的世界觀還具有樸素唯物論和形而上學的特點。

三.培根的論著

1597年,培根發(fā)表了他的處女作《論說隨筆文集》。他在書中將自己對社會的認識和思考,以及對人生的理解,濃縮成許多富有哲理的名言警句,受到廣大讀者的歡迎。

1605年,培根用英語完成了兩卷集《論學術的進展》。這是以知識為其研究對象的一部著作,是培根聲稱要以知識為其領域,全面改革知識的宏大理想和計劃的一部份。培根在書中猛烈抨擊了中世紀的蒙昧主義,論證了知識的巨大的作用,提示了知識不能令人滿意的現(xiàn)狀及補救的辦法。在這本書中,培根提出一個有系統(tǒng)的科學百科全書的提綱,對后來十八世紀的狄德羅為首的法國百科全書派編寫百科全書,起了重大作用。

1609年,在培根任副檢察長時,他又出版了第三本著作《論古人的智慧》。他認為在遠古時代,存在著人類最古的智慧,可以通過對古代寓言故事的研究而發(fā)現(xiàn)失去的最古的智慧。

培根原打算撰寫一部六卷本百科全書式的著作——《偉大的復興》,這是他要復興科學,要對人類知識加以重新改造的巨著,但他未能完成預期的計劃,只發(fā)行了前兩部份,1620年出版的《新工具》是該書的第二部份?!缎鹿ぞ摺肥桥喔钪匾恼軐W著作,它提出了培根在近代所開創(chuàng)的經(jīng)驗認識原則和經(jīng)驗認識方法。這本書與亞里士多德的《工具篇》是相對立的。

培根在結束其政治生涯后,僅用幾個月時間就完成了《亨利七世本紀》一書,這部著作得到后世史學家的高度評價,被譽為是“近代史學的里程碑”。

大約在1623年,培根寫成了《新大西島》一書,這是一部尚未完成的烏托邦式的作品,由羅萊在他去逝的第二年首次發(fā)表。整理在書中描繪了自己新追求和向往的理想社會藍圖,設計了一個稱為“本色列”的國家,在這個國家里,科學主宰一切,這是培根畢業(yè)所倡導的科學的“偉大復興”的思想信念的集中表現(xiàn)。

此外,培根在逝世后還留下了許多遺著,后來,由許多專家學者先后整理出版,包括《論事物的本性》、《迷宮的線索》、《各家哲學的批判》、《自然界的大事》、《論人類的知識》等等。

四.培根在科學史上的地位

弗蘭西斯·培根是近代哲學史上首先提出經(jīng)驗論原則的哲學家。他重視感覺經(jīng)驗和歸納邏輯在認識過程中的作用,開創(chuàng)了以經(jīng)驗為手段,研究感性自然的經(jīng)驗哲學的新時代,對近代科學的建立起了積極的推動作用,對人類哲學史、科學史都做出了重大的歷史貢獻。為此,羅素尊稱培根為“給科學研究程序進行邏輯組織化的先驅”。THEESSAYSOFFRANCISBACON

bbb:///sevenlit/bacon/

========================================bbb:///b/bacon.htmSirFrancisBacon(laterLordVerulamandtheViscountSt.Albans)wasanEnglishlawyer,statesman,essayist,historian,intellectualreformer,philosopher,andchampionofmodernscience.Earlyinhiscareerheclaimed“allknowledgeashisprovince”andafterwardsdedicatedhimselftoawholesalerevaluationandre-structuringoftraditionallearning.Totaketheplaceoftheestablishedtradition(amiscellanyofScholasticism,humanism,andnaturalmagic),heproposedanentirelynewsystembasedonempiricalandinductiveprinciplesandtheactivedevelopmentofnewartsandinventions,asystemwhoseultimategoalwouldbetheproductionofpracticalknowledgefor“theuseandbenefitofmen”andthereliefofthehumancondition.Atthesametimethathewasfoundingandpromotingthisnewprojectfortheadvancementoflearning,Baconwasalsomovinguptheladderofstateservice.HiscareeraspirationshadbeenlargelydisappointedunderElizabethI,butwiththeascensionofJameshispoliticalfortunesrose.Knightedin1603,hewasthensteadilypromotedtoaseriesofoffices,includingSolicitorGeneral(1607),AttorneyGeneral(1613),andeventuallyLordChancellor(1618).WhileservingasChancellor,hewasindictedonchargesofbriberyandforcedtoleavepublicoffice.Hethenretiredtohisestatewherehedevotedhimselffulltimetohiscontinuingliterary,scientific,andphilosophicalwork.Hediedin1626,leavingbehindaculturallegacythat,forbetterorworse,includesmostofthefoundationforthetriumphoftechnologyandforthemodernworldaswecurrentlyknowit.

TableofContents(Clickingonthelinksbelowwilltakeyoutothosepartsofthisarticle)1.LifeandPoliticalCareer

2.ThoughtandWritings

a.LiteraryWorks

b.TheNewAtlantis

c.ScientificandPhilosophicalWorks

d.TheGreatInstauration

e.TheAdvancementofLearning

f.The“Distempers”ofLearning

g.TheIdeaofProgress

h.TheReclassificationofKnowledge

i.TheNewOrganon

j.TheIdols

k.Induction

3.ReputationandCulturalLegacy

4.ReferencesandFurtherReading

1.LifeandPoliticalCareerSirFrancisBacon(laterLordVerulam,theViscountSt.Albans,andLordChancellorofEngland)wasborninLondonin1561toaprominentandwell-connectedfamily.HisparentswereSirNicholasBacon,theLordKeeperoftheSeal,andLadyAnneCooke,daughterofSirAnthonyCooke,aknightandone-timetutortotheroyalfamily.LadyAnnewasalearnedwomaninherownright,havingacquiredGreekandLatinaswellasItalianandFrench.Shewasasister-in-lawbothtoSirThomasHoby,theesteemedEnglishtranslatorofCastiglione,andtoSirWilliamCecil(laterLordBurghley),LordTreasurer,chiefcounselortoElizabethI,andfrom1572-1598themostpowerfulmaninEngland.BaconwaseducatedathomeatthefamilyestateatGorhamburyinHerfordshire.In1573,attheageofjusttwelve,heenteredTrinityCollege,Cambridge,wherethestodgyScholasticcurriculumtriggeredhislifelongoppositiontoAristotelianism(thoughnottotheworksofAristotlehimself).In1576BaconbeganreadinglawatGray’sInn.YetonlyayearlaterheinterruptedhisstudiesinordertotakeapositioninthediplomaticserviceinFranceasanassistanttotheambassador.In1579,whilehewasstillinFrance,hisfatherdied,leavinghim(asthesecondsonofasecondmarriageandtheyoungestofsixheirs)virtuallywithoutsupport.Withnoposition,noland,noincome,andnoimmediateprospects,hereturnedtoEnglandandresumedthestudyoflaw.Baconcompletedhislawdegreein1582,andin1588hewasnamedlecturerinlegalstudiesatGray’sInn.Inthemeantime,hewaselectedtoParliamentin1584asamemberforMelcombeinDorsetshire.HewouldremaininParliamentasarepresentativeforvariousconstituenciesforthenext36years.In1593hisbluntcriticismofanewtaxlevyresultedinanunfortunatesetbacktohiscareerexpectations,theQueentakingpersonaloffenseathisopposition.AnyhopeshehadofbecomingAttorneyGeneralorSolicitorGeneralduringherreignweredashed,thoughElizabetheventuallyrelentedtotheextentofappointingBaconherExtraordinaryCounselin1596.ItwasaroundthistimethatBaconenteredtheserviceofRobertDevereux,theEarlofEssex,adashingcourtier,soldier,plotterofintrigue,andsometimefavoriteoftheQueen.NodoubtBaconviewedEssexasarisingstarandafigurewhocouldprovideamuch-neededboosttohisownsaggingcareer.Unfortunately,itwasnotlongbeforeEssex’sownfortunesplummetedfollowingaseriesofmilitaryandpoliticalblundersculminatinginadisastrouscoupattempt.Whenthecoupplotfailed,Devereuxwasarrested,tried,andeventuallyexecuted,withBacon,inhiscapacityasQueen’sCounsel,playingavitalroleintheprosecutionofthecase.In1603,JamesIsucceededElizabeth,andBacon’sprospectsforadvancementdramaticallyimproved.Afterbeingknightedbytheking,heswiftlyascendedtheladderofstateandfrom1604-1618filledasuccessionofhigh-profileadvisorypositions:1604–AppointedKing’sCounsel.1607–NamedSolicitorGeneral.1608–AppointedClerkoftheStarChamber.1613–AppointedAttorneyGeneral.1616–MadeamemberofthePrivyCouncil.1617–AppointedLordKeeperoftheRoyalSeal(hisfather’sformeroffice).1618–MadeLordChancellor.AsLordChancellor,Baconwieldedadegreeofpowerandinfluencethathecouldonlyhaveimaginedasayounglawyerseekingpreferment.Yetitwasatthispoint,whilehestoodattheverypinnacleofsuccess,thathesufferedhisgreatFall.In1621hewasarrestedandchargedwithbribery.Afterpleadingguilty,hewasheavilyfinedandsentencedtoaprisontermintheTowerofTheentireepisodewasaterribledisgraceforBaconpersonallyandastigmathatwouldclingtoandinjurehisreputationforyearstocome.Asvariouschroniclersofthecasehavepointedout,theacceptingofgiftsfromsuppliantsinalawsuitwasacommonpracticeinBacon’sday,anditisalsotruethatBaconendedupjudgingagainstthetwopetitionerswhohadofferedthefatefulbribes.Yetthedamagewasdone,andBacontohiscreditacceptedthejudgmentagainsthimwithoutexcuse.AccordingtohisownEssayes,orCounsels,heshouldhaveknownanddonebetter.(Inthisrespectitisworthnotingthatduringhisforcedretirement,BaconrevisedandrepublishedtheEssayes,injectinganevengreaterdegreeofshrewdnessintoacollectionalreadynotableforitsworldlinessandkeenpoliticalsense.)MacaulayinalengthyessaydeclaredBaconagreatintellectbut(borrowingaphrasefromBacon’sownletters)a“mostdishonestman,”andmorethanonewriterhascharacterizedhimascold,calculating,andarrogant.Yetwhateverhisflaws,evenhisenemiesconcededthatduringhistrialheacceptedhispunishmentnobly,andmovedon.Baconspenthisremainingyearsworkingwithreneweddeterminationonhislifelongproject:thereformoflearningandtheestablishmentofanintellectualcommunitydedicatedtothediscoveryofscientificknowledgeforthe“useandbenefitofmen.”TheformerLordChancellordiedon9April,1626,supposedlyofacoldorpneumoniacontractedwhiletestinghistheoryofthepreservativeandinsulatingpropertiesofsnow.

BacktoTableofContents2.ThoughtandWritingsInawayBacon’sdescentfrompoliticalpowerwasafortunatefall,foritrepresentedaliberationfromthebondageofpublicliferesultinginaremarkablefinalburstofliteraryandscientificactivity.AsRenaissancescholarandBaconexpertBrianVickershasremindedus,Bacon’searlierworks,impressiveastheyare,wereessentiallyproductsofhis“sparetime.”Itwasonlyduringhislastfiveyearsthathewasabletoconcentrateexclusivelyonwritingandproduce,inadditiontoahandfulofminorpieces:Twosubstantialvolumesofhistoryandbiography,TheHistoryoftheReignofKingHenrytheSeventhandTheHistoryoftheReignofKingHenrytheEighth.DeAugmentisScientiarum(anexpandedLatinversionofhisearlierAdvancementofLearning).Thefinal1625editionofhisEssayes,orCounsels.TheremarkableSylvaSylvarum,orANaturalHistoryinTenCenturies(acurioushodge-podgeofscientificexperiments,personalobservations,speculations,ancientteachings,andanalyticaldiscussionsontopicsrangingfromthecausesofhiccupstoexplanationsfortheshortageofraininEgypt).Artificiallydividedintoten“centuries”(i.e.,tenchapters,eachconsistingofonehundreditems),theworkwasapparentlyintendedtobeincludedinPartThreeoftheMagnaInstauratio.Hisutopianscience-fictionnovelTheNewAtlantis,whichwaspublishedinunfinishedformayearafterhisdeath.VariouspartsofhisunfinishedmagnumopusMagnaInstauratio(orGreatInstauration),includinga“NaturalHistoryofWinds”anda“NaturalHistoryofLifeandDeath.”Theselateproductionsrepresentedthecapstoneofawritingcareerthatspannedmorethanfourdecadesandencompassedvirtuallyanentirecurriculumofliterary,scientific,andphilosophicalstudies.

BacktoTableofContentsa.LiteraryWorksDespitethefanaticalclaims(andveryun-Baconiancredulity)ofafewadmirers,itisavirtualcertaintythatBacondidnotwritetheworkstraditionallyattributedtoWilliamShakespeare.Evenso,theLordChancellor’shighplaceinthehistoryofEnglishliteratureaswellashisinfluentialroleinthedevelopmentofEnglishprosestyleremainwell-establishedandsecure.IndeedevenifBaconhadproducednothingelsebuthismasterfulEssayes(firstpublishedin1597andthenrevisedandexpandedin1612and1625),hewouldstillrateamongthetopechelonof17th-centuryEnglishauthors.Andsowhenwetakeintoaccounthisotherwritings,e.g.,hishistories,letters,andespeciallyhismajorphilosophicalandscientificworks,wemustsurelyplacehiminthefirstrankofEnglishliterature’sgreatmenoflettersandamongitsfinestmasters(alongsidenameslikeJohnson,Mill,Carlyle,andRuskin)ofnon-fictionprose.Bacon’sstyle,thoughelegant,isbynomeansassimpleasitseemsorasitisoftendescribed.Infactitisactuallyafairlycomplexaffairthatachievesitsairofeaseandclaritymorethroughitsbalancedcadences,naturalmetaphors,andcarefullyarrangedsymmetriesthanthroughtheuseofplainwords,commonplaceideas,andstraightforwardsyntax.(InthisconnectionitisnoteworthythatintherevisedversionsoftheessaysBaconseemstohavedeliberatelydisruptedmanyofhisearlierbalancedeffectstoproduceastylethatisactuallymorejaggedand,ineffect,morechallengingtothecasualreader.)Furthermore,justasBacon’spersonalstyleandlivinghabitswerepronetoextravaganceandneverparticularlyaustere,soinhiswritinghewasneverquiteabletoresisttheoccasionalgrandword,magniloquentphrase,ororotundeffect.(AsDr.Johnsonobserved,“AdictionaryoftheEnglishlanguagemightbecompiledfromBacon’sworksalone.”)BishopSpratinhis1667HistoryoftheRoyalSocietyhonoredBaconandpraisedthesocietymembershipforsupposedlyeschewingfinewordsandfancymetaphorsandadheringinsteadtoanaturallucidityand“mathematicalplainness.”Towriteinsuchaway,Spratsuggested,wastofollowtrue,scientific,Baconianprinciples.AndwhileBaconhimselfoftenexpressedsimilarsentiments(praisingbluntexpressionwhilecondemningtheseductionsoffigurativelanguage),areaderwouldbehardpressedtofindmanyexamplesofsuchsparetechniqueinBacon’sownwritings.OfBacon’scontemporaryreaders,atleastonetookexceptiontotheviewthathiswritingrepresentedaperfectmodelofplainlanguageandtransparentmeaning.AfterperusingtheNewOrganon,KingJames(towhomBaconhadproudlydedicatedthevolume)reportedlypronouncedthework“l(fā)ikethepeaceofGod,whichpassethallunderstanding.”BacktoTableofContents

b.TheNewAtlantisAsaworkofnarrativefiction,Bacon’snovelNewAtlantismaybeclassifiedasaliteraryratherthanascientific(orphilosophical)work,thoughiteffectivelybelongstobothcategories.AccordingtoBacon’samanuensisandfirstbiographerWilliamRawley,thenovelrepresentsthefirstpart(showingthedesignofagreatcollegeorinstitutedevotedtotheinterpretationofnature)ofwhatwastohavebeenalongerandmoredetailedproject(depictingtheentirelegalstructureandpoliticalorganizationofanidealcommonwealth).Theworkthusstandsinthegreattraditionoftheutopian-philosophicalnovelthatstretchesfromPlatoandMoretoHuxleyandSkinner.ThethinplotorfableislittlemorethanafictionalshelltocontaintherealmeatofBacon’sstory:theelaboratedescriptionofSalomon’sHouse(alsoknownastheCollegeoftheSixDaysWorks),acentrallyorganizedresearchfacilitywherespeciallytrainedteamsofinvestigatorscollectdata,conductexperiments,and(mostimportantlyfromBacon’spointofview)applytheknowledgetheygaintoproduce“thingsofuseandpracticeforman’slife.”Thesenewartsandinventionstheyeventuallysharewiththeoutsideworld.Intermsofitssci-fiadventureelements,theNewAtlantisisaboutasexcitingasagovernmentoruniversityre-organizationplan.Butintermsofitshistoricalimpact,thenovelhasproventobenothinglessthanrevolutionary,havingservednotonlyasaneffectiveinspirationandmodelfortheBritishRoyalSociety,butalsoasanearlyblueprintandprophecyofthemodernresearchcenterandinternationalscientificcommunity.BacktoTableofContents

c.ScientificandPhilosophicalWorksItisnevereasytosummarizethethoughtofaprolificandwide-rangingphilosopher.YetBaconsomewhatsimplifiesthetaskbyhisownhelpfulhabitsofsystematicclassificationandcatchymnemoniclabeling.(Thus,forexample,therearethree“distempers”–ordiseases–oflearning,”elevenerrorsor“peccanthumours,”four“Idols,”threeprimarymentalfacultiesandcategoriesofknowledge,etc.)Ineffect,byfollowingBacon’sownmethodsitispossi

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