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KnowledgeandWisdom

BertrandRussell

Mostpeoplewouldagreethat,althoughouragefarsurpassesallpreviousagesinknowledge,therehasbeennocorrelativeincreaseinwisdom.Butagreementceasesassoonasweattempttodefine`wisdom'andconsidermeansofpromotingit.Iwanttoaskfirstwhatwisdomis,andthenwhatcanbedonetoteachit.

Thereare,Ithink,severalfactorsthatcontributetowisdom.OftheseIshouldputfirstasenseofproportion:thecapacitytotakeaccountofalltheimportantfactorsinaproblemandtoattachtoeachitsdueweight.Thishasbecomemoredifficultthanitusedtobeowingtotheextentandcomplexityofthespecializedknowledgerequiredofvariouskindsoftechnicians.Suppose,forexample,thatyouareengagedinresearchinscientificmedicine.Theworkisdifficultandislikelytoabsorbthewholeofyourintellectualenergy.Youhavenottimetoconsidertheeffectwhichyourdiscoveriesorinventionsmayhaveoutsidethefieldofmedicine.Yousucceed(letussay),asmodernmedicinehassucceeded,inenormouslyloweringtheinfantdeath-rate,notonlyinEuropeandAmerica,butalsoinAsiaandAfrica.Thishastheentirelyunintendedresultofmakingthefoodsupplyinadequateandloweringthestandardoflifeinthemostpopulouspartsoftheworld.Totakeanevenmorespectacularexample,whichisineverybody'smindatthepresenttime:Youstudythecompositionoftheatomfromadisinteresteddesireforknowledge,andincidentallyplaceinthehandsofpowerfullunaticsthemeansofdestroyingthehumanrace.Insuchwaysthepursuitofknowledgemaybecomeharmfulunlessitiscombinedwithwisdom;andwisdominthesenseofcomprehensivevisionisnotnecessarilypresentinspecialistsinthepursuitofknowledge.

Comprehensivenessalone,however,isnotenoughtoconstitutewisdom.Theremustbe,also,acertainawarenessoftheendsofhumanlife.Thismaybeillustratedbythestudyofhistory.Manyeminenthistorianshavedonemoreharmthangoodbecausetheyviewedfactsthroughthedistortingmediumoftheirownpassions.Hegelhadaphilosophyofhistorywhichdidnotsufferfromanylackofcomprehensiveness,sinceitstartedfromtheearliesttimesandcontinuedintoanindefinitefuture.Butthechieflessonofhistorywhichhesoughttoinculcatewasthatfromtheyear400ADdowntohisowntimeGermanyhadbeenthemostimportantnationandthestandard-bearerofprogressintheworld.Perhapsonecouldstretchthecomprehensivenessthatconstituteswisdomtoincludenotonlyintellectbutalsofeeling.Itisbynomeansuncommontofindmenwhoseknowledgeiswidebutwhosefeelingsarenarrow.SuchmenlackwhatIcallwisdom.

Itisnotonlyinpublicways,butinprivatelifeequally,thatwisdomisneeded.Itisneededinthechoiceofendstobepursuedandinemancipationfrompersonalprejudice.Evenanendwhichitwouldbenobletopursueifitwereattainablemaybepursuedunwiselyifitisinherentlyimpossibleofachievement.Manymeninpastagesdevotedtheirlivestoasearchforthephilosopher'sstoneandtheelixiroflife.Nodoubt,iftheycouldhavefoundthem,theywouldhaveconferredgreatbenefitsuponmankind,butasitwastheirliveswerewasted.Todescendtolessheroicmatters,considerthecaseoftwomen,Mr.AandMr.B,whohateeachotherand,throughmutualhatred,bringeachothertodestruction.SupposeyougotoMr.Aandsay,'WhydoyouhateMr.B?'HewillnodoubtgiveyouanappallinglistofMr.B'svices,partlytrue,partlyfalse.AndnowsupposeyougotoMr.B.HewillgiveyouanexactlysimilarlistofMr.A'sviceswithanequaladmixtureoftruthandfalsehood.SupposeyounowcomebacktoMr.Aandsay,'YouwillbesurprisedtolearnthatMr.Bsaysthesamethingsaboutyouasyousayabouthim',andyougotoMr.Bandmakeasimilarspeech.Thefirsteffect,nodoubt,willbetoincreasetheirmutualhatred,sinceeachwillbesohorrifiedbytheother'sinjustice.Butperhaps,ifyouhavesufficientpatienceandsufficientpersuasiveness,youmaysucceedinconvincingeachthattheotherhasonlythenormalshareofhumanwickedness,andthattheirenmityisharmfultoboth.Ifyoucandothis,youwillhaveinstilledsomefragmentofwisdom.

Ithinktheessenceofwisdomisemancipation,asfaraspossible,fromthetyrannyofthehereandthenow.Wecannothelptheegoismofoursenses.Sightandsoundandtouchareboundupwithourownbodiesandcannotbeimpersonal.Ouremotionsstartsimilarlyfromourselves.Aninfantfeelshungerordiscomfort,andisunaffectedexceptbyhisownphysicalcondition.Graduallywiththeyears,hishorizonwidens,and,inproportionashisthoughtsandfeelingsbecomelesspersonalandlessconcernedwithhisownphysicalstates,heachievesgrowingwisdom.Thisisofcourseamatterofdegree.Noonecanviewtheworldwithcompleteimpartiality;andifanyonecould,hewouldhardlybeabletoremainalive.Butitispossibletomakeacontinualapproachtowardsimpartiality,ontheonehand,byknowingthingssomewhatremoteintimeorspace,andontheotherhand,bygivingtosuchthingstheirdueweightinourfeelings.Itisthisapproachtowardsimpartialitythatconstitutesgrowthinwisdom.

Canwisdominthissensebetaught?And,ifitcan,shouldtheteachingofitbeoneoftheaimsofeducation?Ishouldanswerboththesequestionsintheaffirmative.WearetoldonSundaysthatweshouldloveourneighborsasourselves.Ontheothersixdaysoftheweek,weareexhortedtohate.ButyouwillrememberthatthepreceptwasexemplifiedbysayingthattheSamaritanwasourneighbor.WenolongerhaveanywishtohateSamaritansandsoweareapttomissthepointoftheparable.Ifyouwanttogetitspoint,youshouldsubstituteCommunistoranti-Communist,asthecasemaybe,forSamaritan.Itmightbeobjectedthatitisrighttohatethosewhodoharm.Idonotthinkso.Ifyouhatethem,itisonlytoolikelythatyouwillbecomeequallyharmful;anditisveryunlikelythatyouwillinducethemtoabandontheirevilways.Hatredofevilisitselfakindofbondagetoevil.Thewayoutisthroughunderstanding,notthroughhate.Iamnotadvocatingnon-resistance.ButIamsayingthatresistance,ifitistobeeffectiveinpreventingthespreadofevil,shouldbecombinedwiththegreatestdegreeofunderstandingandthesmallestdegreeofforcethatiscompatiblewiththesurvivalofthegoodthingsthatwewishtopreserve.

ItiscommonlyurgedthatapointofviewsuchasIhavebeenadvocatingisincompatiblewithvigourinaction.Idonotthinkhistorybearsoutthisview.QueenElizabethIinEnglandandHenryIVinFrancelivedinaworldwherealmosteverybodywasfanatical,eitherontheProtestantorontheCatholicside.Bothremainedfreefromtheerrorsoftheirtimeandboth,byremainingfree,werebeneficentandcertainlynotineffective.AbrahamLincolnconductedagreatwarwithouteverdepartingfromwhatIhavecalledwisdom.

Ihavesaidthatinsomedegreewisdomcanbetaught.Ithinkthatthisteachingshouldhavealargerintellectualelementthanhasbeencustomaryinwhathasbeenthoughtofasmoralinstruction.Ithinkthatthedisastrousresultsofhatredandnarrow-mindednesstothosewhofeelthemcanbepointedoutincidentallyinthecourseofgivingknowledge.Idonotthinkthatknowledgean