話語分析課程資料

1.WhatisDiscourse?Languagedoesnotnormallyconsistofisolated,unrelatedsentences,butinsteadofcollocated,structured,coherentgroupsofsentenceswecancalladiscourse.2.WhatisDiscourseAnalysis?Discourseanalysis(DA),ordiscoursestudies,isageneraltermforanumberofapproachestoanalyzingwritten,spoken,signedlanguageuseoranysignificantsemioticevent.3.WhatisaSpeechAct?Aspeechactisanutterancethatservesafunctionincommunication.Austin’sSpeechActTheory(speechisitselfaformofaction:constativevs.performative)Austiniswidelyassociatedwiththeconceptofthespeechacttheoryandtheideathatspeechisitselfaformofaction.Constativeutteranceisonethatassertsorstatessomethingthatcanbejudgedastrueorfalse.(e.g.Hepromisedtogivehertendollars.)Theperformativeisutteredintheperformanceofanillocutionaryactandiseitherfelicitousorinfelicitous.(e.g.Ipromisetogivehertendollars.)Limitation(e.g.JocelyngotaCartierforherbirthday.)Austinlatermodifiedhistheory:locutionaryact以言指事行為theactualutteranceanditsostensiblemeaning,comprisingphonetic,phaticandrheticactscorrespondingtotheverbal,syntacticandsemanticaspectsofanymeaningfulutterance.illocutionaryAct以言行事行為Thesemantic'illocutionaryforce'oftheutterance,thusitsreal,intendedmeaningPrelocutionaryAct以語成事行為Itsactualeffect,whetherintendedornote.g.Inutteringthelocution"Isthereanysalt?"atthedinnertable,onemaytherebyperformtheillocutionaryactofrequestingsalt,aswellasthedistinctlocutionaryactofutteringtheinterrogatorysentenceaboutthepresenceofsalt,andthefurtherperlocutionaryactofcausingsomebodytohandonethesalt.Searle’sSpeechActTheorySearle’sSpeechActTheory(Assertives,Directives,Commissives,Expressives,Declarations)Searlehassetupthefollowingclassificationofillocutionaryspeechacts:Assertives斷言類E.G.Samsmokeshabitually.Directives指令類E.G.DoesSamsmokehabitually?Commissives承諾類E.G.Sam,smokehabitually!Expressives表達(dá)類E.G.WouldthatSamsmokehabitually!Declarations宣告類(astatement,aquestion,acommand,andanexpressionofdesire,respectively)4.WhatisContext?Malinowski--Context“mustburstthebondsofmerelinguisticsandbecarriedoverintotheanalysisofthegeneralconditionsunderwhichalanguageisspoken.”Contextincludes:Firth--1)TheParticipantsinthesituation;2)TheActionoftheparticipants;

3)OtherRelevantFeaturesofthesituation;4)TheEffectsoftheverbalaction.SocialContext--HallidayTHEFIELDOFDISCOURSE語場:Referstowhatishappening,tothenatureofthesocialactionthatistakingplace.THETENOROFDISCOURSE語旨:Referstowhoistakingpart,tothenatureoftheparticipants,theirstatusesandroles.THEMODEOFDISCOURSE語式:Referstowhatpartthelanguageisplaying,whatisthattheparticipantsareexpectingthelanguagetodofortheminthatsituation.FunctionofContext:制約功能解釋功能5.WhatisCohesion?Cohesionisdefinedasasemanticconcept.Itis“asemanticrelationbetweenanelementinthetextandsomeotherelementsthatiscrucialtotheinterpretationofit”.Cohesionisthegrammaticalandlexicalrelationshipwithinatextorsentence.Itcanbedefinedasthelinksthatholdatexttogetherandgiveitmeaning.Typesofcohesion1.Referencing照應(yīng)ExophoricReference外指照應(yīng):ItisusedtodescribegenericsorabstractswithouteveridentifyingthemEndophoricReference內(nèi)指照應(yīng)?Anaphoricreferenceoccurswhenthewriterrefersbacktosomeoneorsomethingthathasbeenpreviouslyidentified,toavoidrepetition.?Cataphoricreferenceistheoppositeofanaphora:areferenceforwardasopposedtobackwardinthediscourse.Somethingisintroducedintheabstractbeforeitisidentified.2.Ellipsis&substitution省略與替代Ellipsishappenswhen,afteramorespecificmention,wordsareomittedwhenthephraseneedstoberepeated.Substitutionmeansthatawordisnotomitted,asinellipsis,butissubstitutedforanother,moregeneralword.3.Conjunction連詞Conjunctionsetsuparelationshipbetweentwoclauses.4.Grammaticalcohesion語法銜接5.Lexicalcohesion詞匯銜接Repetition重復(fù)B.Synonym/Antonym同/反義詞C.Hyponymy上下義關(guān)系D.Collocation組合，搭配5.WhatisCoherence?(Fourbasicmechanicalconsiderationsinprovidingtransitionsbetweenideas:usingtransitionalexpressions,repeatingkeywordsandphrases,usingpronounreference,andusingparallelform)CohesionreferstothelinguisticfeaturesthatrelatesentencestooneanotherandCoherencereferstothetextthatappropriatelyfitsitssituationalcontext.Whenatextisconsistentinternally,itiscohesive;whenitisconsistentwithitscontext,itiscoherent.Cohesioncontributesonlypartiallytotextualcoherence,whileacoherenttextdoesnotnecessarilyrequirecohesion.Beaugrande（1981）--Coherenceisdefinedastheprocedureswhichensureconceptualconnectivity，including（1）logicalrelations，（2）organizationofevents，objectsandsituations，（3）continuityinhumanexperience．Itconcerns“thewayinwhichthecomponentsofthetextualworldwhichunderliethesurfacetextaremutuallyaccessibleandrelevant”.6.ThematicStructureToconveygiveninformationandnewinformationTosubjectandpredicateToframeandinsertThemeandRhemeThemeisgiveninformationservingas“thepointofdeparture”ofamessage.RhemeistheremainderofthemessageinaclauseinwhichThemeisdeveloped.Rhemetypicallycontainsunfamiliarornewinformation.Themeisthefirstelementoccurringinaclause;TheremainderclauseisRheme.MarkedandUnmarkedThemeThemeisnotequatedwiththesubjectofasentence;norisRhemeequatedwiththepredicate.IftheThemeoverlapswiththegrammaticalsubjectsofthesentences,wecallitunmarkedTheme.Ontheotherhand,markedsentencesoftencontainaThemethatisseparatefromthesubjectcontainingpre-posedadverbialgroupsorprepositionalphrases.ThemeandRhemeThememayberealizedbyanominalgroup,verbalgroup,adverbialgroup,prepositionalphraseoradependentclause.Thecharacteristicoftheseelementsisthattheyappearfirstinaclauseandrepresent‘given’information.AlltherestofaclauseisRhemerepresenting‘new’information.3ThematicProgressionPatterns主位推進(jìn)模式SimpleLinearTP延續(xù)型TPwithaContinuousTheme主位同一型TPwithderivedThemes擴(kuò)充型7.Whatisperspective？Perspectiveintheoryofcognitionisthechoiceofacontextorareference(ortheresultofthischoice)fromwhichtosense,categorize,measureorcodifyexperience,cohesivelyformingacoherentbelief,typicallyforcomparingwithanother.Onemayfurtherrecognizeanumberofsubtlydistinctivemeanings,closetothoseofparadigm,pointofview,realitytunnel,orweltanschauung.TypesofPerspectiveThird-personomniscientperspective全面視角Firstpersonperspective單向視角Multipleperspective多向視角8. WhatisConversationAnalysis?Conversationanalysis(CA)isanapproachtothestudyofsocialinteraction,embracingbothverbalandnon-verbalconduct,insituationsofeverydaylife.MethodsofCA:turn-takingconstructingsequencesofutterancesacrossturnsidentifyingandrepairingproblems,andemployinggazeandmovement9.Grice’s‘Co-operativePrinciple’ --“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeanddirectionoftheexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”Conversationworksonlywiththeco-operationofitsparticipants.Co-operationisbuiltaroundaseriesof‘Griceanmaxims’:QualityQuantityMannerRelationQuality:betrue“Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.”“Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackevidence.”So…whensomeonespeakstous,weassume:thatwhattheysayisnotknowinglyuntruthful;thatthetruthfulnessofwhattheysaydoesnotneedtobemadestated.Quantity:bebrief“Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.”“Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.”So…whensomeonespeakstous,weassume:theydonotpurposefullyholdbackanythingthatisimportant;theydonotgivemoreinformationthanisasked.Manner:beclear“Beperspicuous.”/“Avoidobscurityofexpression.”/“Avoidambiguity.”“Bebrief.”/“Beorderly.”So…whensomeonespeakstous,weassume:thatwhattheysayisbeingsaidasstraightforwardlyastheycansayit.Relation:berelevant“Berelevant.”So…whensomeonespeakstous,weassume:thatwhattheysayisrelevanttotheconversation.10.GeoffreyLeech:The‘PolitenessPrinciple’GeoffreyLeechproposedtheneedfor‘politenessmaxims’asaprerequisiteforconversationalco-operation.TheTactmaxim得體準(zhǔn)則，圓通準(zhǔn)則TheGenerositymaxim慷慨準(zhǔn)則，大方準(zhǔn)則TheApprobationmaxim贊揚(yáng)準(zhǔn)則，贊許準(zhǔn)則TheModestymaxim謙虛準(zhǔn)則，謙遜準(zhǔn)則TheAgreementmaxim贊同準(zhǔn)則，一致準(zhǔn)則TheSympathymaxim同情準(zhǔn)則Leech’sPolitenessMaxims1. Tact 'Minimizetheexpressionofbeliefswhichimply