科技論文學(xué)習(xí)總結(jié)

科技論文學(xué)習(xí)總結(jié)散記0.科技論文寫(xiě)作的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)0.1文體上的特點(diǎn)0.1.1科技寫(xiě)作要求采用有效的文體（effectivestyle）,在寫(xiě)作中并不需要你創(chuàng)造形成自己特有的風(fēng)格，相反地，你應(yīng)該努力做到在寫(xiě)作質(zhì)量上達(dá)到下列要求，如：清晰性clearness、直接性directness、簡(jiǎn)明性conciseness和可讀性readability.此外還要求語(yǔ)言簡(jiǎn)練simplicity、準(zhǔn)確precision.0.1.2避免使用僵硬的虛夸的語(yǔ)言e.g.increasethevisibilityoftheincandescentgases改為：maketheflameeasiertosee.0.1.3使用具體的專(zhuān)門(mén)的語(yǔ)言即：避免采用抽象和一般的語(yǔ)言。e.g.Weplantopresentaproposalcoveringallimportantaspectsoftheproblem.改為OnOctober10weshallpresentaproposalcoveringcost,materials,methodology,andpersonnel.科技琯作中具體和專(zhuān)門(mén)的措辭必然會(huì)帶來(lái)對(duì)事物理解的直接性directness.0.1.4避免使用長(zhǎng)句子避免寫(xiě)過(guò)長(zhǎng)的句子，過(guò)長(zhǎng)的句子往往贊成內(nèi)容的混亂，應(yīng)該把過(guò)長(zhǎng)的句子拆開(kāi)分成幾個(gè)獨(dú)立的較短的句子，但也不應(yīng)走到另一極端，把一個(gè)句子分成很多過(guò)短的句子，因?yàn)檫@樣會(huì)贊成零碎單調(diào)的感覺(jué)?？傊恼轮械木渥?，應(yīng)該有長(zhǎng)有短，也有適中的，適當(dāng)搭配，避免千篇一律。句子結(jié)構(gòu)也要求簡(jiǎn)單和直接，避免不必要的復(fù)雜化，現(xiàn)在比較下面兩個(gè)句子：Thenextstepconsistedoflookingformethodsbywhichthelossesthatoccurredinthebearingsmightbeeliminated.改為：Thenextstepconsistedoflookingformethodsofeliminatingthelossesinthebearings.簡(jiǎn)單化的目的是使句子更清晰更可讀，如果起了相反的效果則不可取。0.1.5簡(jiǎn)明性conciseness是科技文章的一個(gè)重要方面要避免用詞的重復(fù)。如：costsrisetohigherlevel,只用costsrise就可以了。如：duetothefactthat縮減為：dueto就可以。Duringtheyearsbetween縮減為between就可以了。再如：Itisessentialthatwetaketheseprecautionsifourcrewsaretobesafe改為theseprecautionsareessentialtothesafetyofourcrews.簡(jiǎn)明性不僅僅是節(jié)省文章的空間，更重要的是節(jié)省讀者的時(shí)間，但為了文章的簡(jiǎn)明，不可走得過(guò)遠(yuǎn)，不可為簡(jiǎn)明而犧牲了清晰性、可讀性、自然性、準(zhǔn)確性和必須強(qiáng)調(diào)之處。e.g.Preventingcatalystselectivitydeteriorationisdifficult.應(yīng)改為Itisdifficulttopreventtheselectivityofthecatalystfromdeteriorating.0.1.6句子的擴(kuò)展方法在科技文章中，特別是在高水平的學(xué)術(shù)論文中，時(shí)常需要寫(xiě)一引起復(fù)雜的長(zhǎng)句以表達(dá)較多的較完整的科技信息，而避免寫(xiě)成一連串的短句子以適合于專(zhuān)業(yè)人士閱讀。這些句子初看起來(lái)很復(fù)雜，但在文字語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)上，特別是在文章的整體上，表現(xiàn)出了高度的簡(jiǎn)潔和精煉，反映了文體的高效性。如：Avarietyofproteinsincludingcasein,lactalbumin,lactoferrin,angiogenin-1andangiogenin-2arepresentinmilk.這里including是現(xiàn)分作后置定語(yǔ)。0.2會(huì)議論文與期刊論文Conferences:CommunicationandconnectionarethemajorpurposesJournals:1.Therequirementsvaryfordifferentjournals2.Submitmanuscripttotherightjournal3.Maysubmittoaconferencefirst1寫(xiě)論文的步驟和方法寫(xiě)論文大綱要寫(xiě)好文章必須先有一個(gè)寫(xiě)作大綱，它是文章的骨架和草圖。大綱的作用一是能幫助明確和完善文章的具體內(nèi)容，二是能使文章的內(nèi)容條理化、系統(tǒng)化和周密化。文章作者如果經(jīng)歷了科研實(shí)踐、調(diào)查研究和新聞?dòng)浾呶墨I(xiàn)等各階段，又進(jìn)行了定主題和選材料兩個(gè)步驟，則對(duì)文章的結(jié)構(gòu)和內(nèi)容已心中有數(shù)了，只要把構(gòu)思的結(jié)果以綱要的形式寫(xiě)出來(lái)，再稍加修改，就會(huì)成為文章的寫(xiě)作大綱了，有了大綱，寫(xiě)文章就容易得多了?？紤]使用哪些圖和表寫(xiě)出前言和概述（摘要），寫(xiě)出其他要寫(xiě)而沒(méi)有寫(xiě)的部分。對(duì)各部分進(jìn)行修飾。檢查和修改。大綱的產(chǎn)生大綱的組織可由樹(shù)狀結(jié)構(gòu)派生出來(lái)。當(dāng)你用一句簡(jiǎn)明的句子寫(xiě)出你的主題時(shí)，就得到了樹(shù)狀結(jié)構(gòu)頂點(diǎn)，然后問(wèn)你自己：要讀者了解這個(gè)主題，要解釋的主要部分是什么？這就得到了樹(shù)狀結(jié)構(gòu)的第二層結(jié)構(gòu)。然后再問(wèn)：這一部分中有些什么要素？要使讀者了解這些要素需要哪些要點(diǎn)？這樣就得出了這篇廣平的組織框圖。Title多數(shù)作者在題目中不用定冠詞the,但也有用的，用的少。文章題目應(yīng)簡(jiǎn)法明了，具體要求體而不空洞，并能概括全篇，使閱后能抓住文章的意圖和核心。T.1NottoogeneralT.2ReflectthecontentT.3TrytobeuniqueT.4CanbedoneatalaterstageExample:Design,FabricationandEvaluationofaMobileRobotforPolarEnvironmentsThetitleistheonlypartofyourpapermostpeoplewillread-makeitclear,concise(self-contained)andinformativeActualfindingsshouldbedescribedwithclaimsthatcanbesupportedItshouldbecatchy/memorableThetitleisalabel,notasentenceThelistofAuthorsStudentfirst,supervisorsecondAnauthorofapapershouldbedefinedasonewhotakesintellectualresponsibilityfortheresearchresultsbeingreportedGivecreditwhereitisdue.Itdoesnotcostanything,anditcreatesfriends.ScienceismoreofasocialactivitythanyoumightthinkAuthors’affiliationsandcorrespondingauthorListonlythoseco-authorswhocontributedsubstantiallytothework（Ethicsofscientificwriting）AbstractTheabstractisvitallyimportant-withoutdoubtthemostimportant200-300wordsinthepaperNeverforgetthattheabstractisoftentheonlythingreaderswillreadfromyourpaper.Payattentiontoit!Makeitveryconcise,clear-cut,easytoread.AvoidtechnicaltermsorcomplicatedreasoningFirst1-2sentences:introductiontotheconceptNext1-2sentences:thesystemandthespecificquestionNomethods,unlessunavoidableornewNextxsentences,abriefsummaryoftheresultsFinal1-2sentences:conclusionYoucanendwithasentencethathintsatthemajortopicofthediscussionTypedasasingleparagraphNoabbreivations/orcitationsAsasummaryofworkdone,itiswritteninpasttenseA.1ProvideenoughinformationaboutthepaperA.2BeconcisebutcoverthecontributionsA.3PointouttheuniquenessofthepaperA.4PolishthewritingcarefullyThedynamicsofworkforceskilllevelshasaconsiderableimpactonplant-levelperformancethatiscommonlyoverlookedbymanagersofmanufacturingoperations.Inthisstudy,wepresentadiscreteeventsimulationmodel…>Thispaperpresentsaframeworktoillustrate….Introduction這部分主要說(shuō)明為什么要進(jìn)行這項(xiàng)研究，有關(guān)本課題的研究現(xiàn)狀，本研究的目的和范圍等。導(dǎo)言不同于摘要和結(jié)論，也不代替文章的其他部分。時(shí)態(tài)方面：更多的用到的是一般將來(lái)時(shí)。Nomorethan2pagesAbadbeginningmakesabadendingcallattentiontothespecificsubject,definetheproblemprovidebackgroundandpresenttheresultsofotherstudies(literaturereview)Shouldnotbe(too)technicallistthestructureofyourresearchprojectandwhatyouplantopresentinyourpaperE.g.n.willbeaddressedthrough….Thispaperisconcernedwith….Amethodwillbeofferedtoquantifyhumanreliabilityusingprobabilisticmodels.Anintroductiontothen.willbeoffered.Adiscussionwillbepresentedastohowthemethodcanbeusedtostudy….Thefourthsectionoftheprojectwillpresentanexampleofhowthe….Finally,aconclusionwillbeofferedwhichcontainstheresults,operatingcharacteristicsoftheanalysisandqualificationsthereto.1.Provideabackgroundoftheresearch(motivation)2.Presentaliteraturereview(conciseandcomplete)3.Statetheproblemaddressedinthepaper(importance)4.Highlightthecontributions(toimpressthereviewers)5.Organizationofthepaper(easiertoread)以下是Introduction中采用的可能的句式Itisalsohighlycontroversial.>Theextant（現(xiàn)存的）literatureconcerningjobdesignandmotivationinleanproductionisfragmented,with>Thereisanurgentneedtodevelopeffectivepersonnelselectionmechanismtofindthetalentswhoarethemostsuitabletotheirownorganization.>ThemainfocusisalwaysuponunderstandingandbeingabletouseCPmethodologyindailylife.>ThisisindeedthecasewithCleanerProduction,wherethefocusisoftenonanindividualproductionsite,ratherthanexaminingtheimpactsoftheparticularproductionsite>…aredescribedinSection2.Section3showsresultsofthecriticalityanalysisandtheeffectivenessofcorrectiveactions.Finally,suggestionsandconcludingremarksaregiveninthelastsection.>Ourresearchspecificallyaddressesthefollowingthreequestions:1.Whatis…2.howdoes…3.Doesthe..>Weempiricallyvalidatedthemodelparameters>Theremainderofthepaperisstructuredasfollows.Section2providesbackgroundonthe>Relatedliteratureindicatesthat>Recentresearchhasdemonstratedmoregenerallythat>文獻(xiàn)引用：AccordingtoHyeretal.（），jobdesignisoneoftheimportant….>Realizingtheneedtoreducemanufacturingcosts,improvequality,andrespondtothechangingneedsofcustomers,manyfirmshaveintroducedadvancedmanufacturingtechnology(AMT)intheexistingresources.>Duringthepastfiftyyearstherehasbeenasignificantbodyofexperimentationanalyzingtheinterfacebetweenhumans,theequipmenttheyuseandtheenvironmentinwhichtheywork.>Theinterestedreaderisreferredto查閱(作者，年份)whichcontainsadetailedstudyof….>Therearenumerousstudieswhichhavebeenperformedv.ing動(dòng)賓結(jié)構(gòu)。>Itiswelldocumentedthat….>Asseeninexistingstudies,therearetwoproblems:在當(dāng)前的研究中，存在問(wèn)題。Numbercitationsconsecutivelyinsquarebrackets[1].Punctuationfollowsthebracket[2].Refersimplytothereferencenumber,asin[3].Use“Ref.[3]”or“Reference[3]”atthebeginningofasentence:“Reference[3]wasthefirst…”》Muchmorerarely,thereissometimesaneedtogainaccesstothespaceacrossbothcolumnsjustabovethemaintext.LiteratureReviewDevelopinganoutlinechronologicalarrangementcomparisonandcontrastincontraversionaltheoriesCreatingaskeletonselectafewdocumentsandwriteabouteachdiscernthemainpointsoftheircontentsHighQualityofReviewFreefrombiasConstructiveIn-depthandthoroughreviewTheemphasisonthepointsofmajorimportanceBody>trainingisthesubjectofthe6thofDeming’s14pointphilosophyofbusinessqualitymanagement.>Theprocessisasfollows.First,MaterialsandMethodsSufficientdetailsothatworkcanberepeatedDescribenewmethodsindetail-thedegreeofreplicationandsensitivityCitetheacceptedmethodbrieflyusingreferenceIfapublishedmethodismodified,suchmodificationsmustbedescribedindetailStatisticalanalysisofdataifappropriate.Usesubheadingsasneededforclarityaskacolleagueifhe/shecanfollowthemethodologySinceyourprocedureshavebeencompleted,reportthemusingpasttense.ResultsDisplayofdatawithlogicaldevelopmentshowinghowyourfindingssatisfyyourobjectivesTheresultsshouldbeshortandsweet,withnoexcessverbiagePresentanddiscussresultsconciselyusingfiguresandtablesasneededFindingsdescribedinpasttenseGenerallydoesNOTincludeexplanationsordiscussionoftheresultsTableandfigurelegendsshouldbeaccompaniedwithsufficientinformationformainpoint.TableandfigureshouldbeabletostandaloneAlltablesandfiguresmustbenumberedintheorderinwhichtheyarementionedinthetextNumericaldatawiththecorrectnumberofsignificantdigitsDiscussionthehardestsectiontowrite,youdiscuss,youdonotrecapitulatetheResultsshowtherelationshipamongobservedfactsClearlyindicatewhatnewinformationisprovidedbythepresentstudy--originalityendwithashortsummary/conclusionDiscussionAdviceMovefromyourspecificfindingstotheliterature,theoryandpracticeMakesurenottoignorethemajorissue(diditresolveproblem,answerquestion,supporthypothesis?Don’tovergeneralizeormakeunsupportedconclusionsDon’tignoredeviationsinyourdataAvoidspeculationthatcannotbetestedinnearfutureb.1Model/Problemformulationb.1.1Providecompleteinformationandformulatetheproblemclearlyb.1.2Presentthesystemequationsb.1.3Defineallsymbolsb.1.4Numbertheequationscorrectlywithproperalignment>Operationalperformancedatawereobtainedfromthemanufacturingmanagementsystemoutput,aswellasfrommeasurementstakendirectlyfromtheassemblyareasduringthesitevisits.>WevalidatedtherelativenumericvaluesofeverymodelparameterwithACE’sengineersandourempiricaldata.>Theoverallmodelwasfurtherrefinedandvalidatedthroughanextensiveb.2Proposedmethod/Derivation/Proof/Designb.2.1Providecompleteandrigorousworkb.2.2Pointoutexisitingbackgroundresearchresultsb.2.3Presentdetailsb.2.4Usefiguresb.3Resultvalidation/Simulation/Experimentb.3.1Describesetupusedb.3.2Providesettingsb.3.3Presentdetailedresultswithcompleteinformationb.3.4Summarizeresultsbasedonthepresentedresultsb.3.5Letthereaders/reviewersjudgebasedondataprovidedConclusionsandFutureworkConclusionsshouldnotbeasummaryoftheworkdoneoravirtualduplicationoftheabstractConclusionsshouldbejustifiedbythedatapresentedEmphasisshouldbeonmajorconclusionsandimplicationConclusionisoptionalinmanyscientificjournals關(guān)于結(jié)論的寫(xiě)法，有的文章寫(xiě)成整段，有的文章分開(kāi)成幾條內(nèi)容Inyour

conclusionyoumusttakeupyourthesisinsuchawaythatthereadercan

seehowsuccessfullyandconvincinglyithasbeentreated.itisinsufficienttohaveonlyoneconcludingsentence.A

goodconclusionwillnotonlystatewhatthewriterhastriedtoshowbut

willalsogivethereadersomeadditionalinformationorideas.Such

additionalideascan,forexample,pointoutquestionsraisedbythepaper.

hepurposeofnewideasattheendofthepaperistokeepthereaders

fromputtingthepaperawaywithoutthinkingaboutit.Whilethe"hook"in

theopenermakesthereadercuriousaboutthepaper,anewideainthe

conclusionforcesthereaderintocontinuedthoughtabouttheauthor's

ideas.>Wehopewiththismodeltohavemadeafirststeptowardtheirresolution.>Theresultsofthepresentstudydemonstratetheimportanceof>Ourresultsshowthat>Thus,anarearipeforfutureresearchisan…>Itmayalsobepossibleto>Theresultsindicate,amongotherthings,that….>Thereareopportunitiesforfurtherresearchutilizing….>Theframeworkdevelopedinthisarticlepresentsthe….>TheprocessdescribedhereinoffersonemethodforquantifyingtheC.1HighlightcontributionsC.2LastchancetoconvincethereviewersC.3OpportunitytofillanycracksC.4Generalfuturework,butdetailedfutureplanisnotnecessaryAcknowledgmentTechnicalassistanceAdviceonresearchormanuscriptGiftsofmaterialsAssistanceinpreparingmanuscriptFinancialassistanceAcknowledgment》 Thepreferredspellingoftheword“acknowledgment”inAmericaiswithoutan“e”afterthe“g.”》ThisworkwassupportedbytheIEEE.ReferenceDon’tusetheworkofotherswithoutappropriateattribution（Ethicsofscientificwriting）R.1UseconsistentformatR.2ProvidecompleteinformationR.3AllreferencesarecitedinthepaperR.4SelectthemorerelevantreferencesR.5IncludeyourownpapersRevisingaPaperr.1Startwritingearlyr.2Manyroundsbetweenthestudentandsupervisor(s)r.3Makeeveryefforttomakethemanuscriptperfectr.4Usethemostconvenientformat/template/editorSubmittingaPaperSubmitthepapertothejournal’seditor(onlytoonejournal)Hard-copyofmanuscript(usuallythreeormorecopies)DiskofthesameversionText:Word,WordPerfect,TeX/LaTeX,etc.Figures:tif,gif,postscript,etc.S.1SelecttherightjournalorconferenceS.2Beprofessionalwithcoverletter,etc.S.3Respondcorrectlytotheeditor/reviewer‘scommentsS.4RemainethicalAscientificpaperisnotliterature.Iftheingredientsareproperlyorganized,thepaperwillalmostwriteitself.段落寫(xiě)法每段應(yīng)有一個(gè)中心思想，早點(diǎn)寫(xiě)明，且盡可能放在主題句的位置。若作者能夠邏輯地組織且在段落之間提供過(guò)渡的話，則作者就可以更好的遵循你的思路。Thewriterwhodealswithseveral

majorideasinoneparagraphwilldefinitelyconfusereaders.Iwastemptedtowritethatthefocusofa

paragraphshouldbeononeideaandthatthecentralideaoughttobewell

supported.段.1OUTLINEByfollowinganoutlineclosely,writerswill

usuallyavoidthemistakeoftreatingseveralideastogether,asadditional

ideasareoftenafterthoughtsthatoccurwhilethewriteriswritinga

draft.段.2valuablenewideasIfthenewideasarevaluable,thewritermustchangethestructure

ofthepaper,providingproperparagraphsforeachidea.

段.3ideas—evidencesupportItisnotenoughtomerelystateone'sidea.Ideasmustbe

supportedtobecomeforcefulandconvincing.Ifyouwerewritingthepaper

onpublictransportationandarguedthattrainsareasafemodeof

transportationwithoutshowingevidence,areader,thinkingofsomerecent

trainaccident,mightdisagreeandsaythattrainsareunsafe.After

readingsuchanunsupportedstatement,thereadermaynolongerbelieve

anythingyouhavewritten.Yourstatementwouldbemuchmoreconvincingif

youbacked(支持)itwithstatisticsthatprovetherelativesafetyofrail

transport.Writingwithoutsupportresultsinunconvincingpapers.Bygivingevidence,then,youmakesurethatyoukeepthereaderwithyou

throughoutyourpaper.Ihavealreadyexplainedtheimportanceof

logicalstructure,focusingononeidea,andsupportingyourideas.段.4paragraphconnection&TransitionsTransitionsarenotonlydesirablebetweenparagraphs,theyarealso

necessarybetweensentenceswithinoneparagraph.段.5writingprocedurePaperwritingintheUnitedStates

consistsofthreesteps:saywhatyouwanttodo,doit,saywhatyouhave

done.科技英語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)科技英語(yǔ)的目標(biāo)在于說(shuō)明事實(shí)和事理，特別強(qiáng)調(diào)事物的客觀性，表達(dá)的準(zhǔn)確性和簡(jiǎn)明性，與日常英語(yǔ)和文學(xué)英語(yǔ)有許多不同的特點(diǎn)。1.廣泛使用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)句在科技英語(yǔ)中不強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)人的作用，因此廣泛使用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)無(wú)人稱(chēng)句。2.普遍性論述凡論述的內(nèi)容屬于客觀真理、科學(xué)定律、公式或定義之類(lèi)，均用現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)，以表示其具有普遍性意義。3.動(dòng)詞不定式表示目的和功能科技文章常使用動(dòng)詞不定式來(lái)表示目的或目標(biāo)，即為什么要做一件事。如：Theaircraftisdesignedtoflyat800kilometersperhour.不定式也可以用于被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。4.名詞修飾名詞在科技英語(yǔ)中，可用作名詞的詞亦可用于修飾另一個(gè)名詞。如：Theoiltankerreachestherefinery,wheretheoilisprocessed.Whenthetankerreachestherefinery,itsloadofcrudeispumpedintotherefinerystoragetanks.5.句子力求簡(jiǎn)明及句子的簡(jiǎn)縮方法科技文章的內(nèi)容要求簡(jiǎn)潔明確，力求把長(zhǎng)句子縮短。如Whentheyareheatedunderpressure,theconstituentsfusetogether.改為Whenheatedunderpressure,theconstituentsfusetogether.還可進(jìn)一步改為：Heatedunderpressure,theconstituents5.1復(fù)合名詞Anewwater-towerisbeingbuiltinthevillage.相當(dāng)于：Anewtowerforstoringwaterisbeingbuiltinthevillage.由這一例可以看出，介詞后可以加動(dòng)賓短語(yǔ)，而并不一定必須是動(dòng)名記或是名詞短語(yǔ)。有的復(fù)合名詞很長(zhǎng)，理解它的意義時(shí)要遵循從后向前推的原則，例如：adayandnightweatherobservationstation.要理解意義得從后向前推,即：astationforobservationweatherbothbydayandbynight關(guān)于復(fù)合名詞要注意三點(diǎn);名詞修飾名詞時(shí)，前一名詞多用單數(shù)。第一點(diǎn)：有的復(fù)合名詞中間用連字符連接，有的沒(méi)有這中間沒(méi)有嚴(yán)格規(guī)定，有時(shí)有沒(méi)有連字符在意義上沒(méi)有區(qū)別。如：textbook和text-book和textbook.但多詞合成時(shí)有時(shí)應(yīng)用得小心：smallcarfactory是可以理解為小的生產(chǎn)car的工廠。如果asmall-carfactory,是指生產(chǎn)小車(chē)的工廠，也許還很大呢。第二點(diǎn)：復(fù)合詞的前半部分永遠(yuǎn)是單數(shù)因?yàn)樗鸬叫稳菰~的作用，形容詞是沒(méi)有復(fù)數(shù)的。如：astudenthostel,其含義是指：ahostelforstudents第三點(diǎn)：有多種形式形成復(fù)合詞的兩個(gè)名詞之間的關(guān)系可以有許多形式：agas-jar=ajarforcontaininggasagas-meter=ameterformeasuringgasgassupply=thesupplyofgasthegaslight(光)=lightsuppliedbyburninggasthegaslaws(定律)=scientificlawsaboutthebehaviorofgases.5.2‘s的使用及單多人的發(fā)現(xiàn)和發(fā)明無(wú)生命的東西所有格永遠(yuǎn)不要使用‘S。對(duì)于人物的所有格，有時(shí)使用’S,有時(shí)用復(fù)合名詞，省去…of…，主要根據(jù)以下原則確定：1）單人的發(fā)現(xiàn)用所所有格表示Boyle’slaw,Avogadro’shypothesis2)單人的發(fā)明用復(fù)合名詞表示aBunsenburner,theKelvinscale3)對(duì)于發(fā)現(xiàn)與發(fā)明分不清的方法、技術(shù)等下面的兩種表示方式都可以：Fulanidiscoveredanewmethodofstainingcells.Fulaniinventedanewmethodofstainingcells.4)當(dāng)兩人或以上人的發(fā)現(xiàn)或發(fā)明均用復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)theStefan-Boltzmanlaw,theJoule-Thompsoneffect等。5.3被動(dòng)關(guān)系從句的簡(jiǎn)縮5.3.1從句中動(dòng)詞后有介短時(shí)在科技英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作中，從句中動(dòng)詞后有介詞短語(yǔ)時(shí)，把wh-word和be省去，如：Anobjectwhichisleftinthesunbecomeshot.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Anobjectleftinthesunbecomeshot.5.3.2wh-word+be+verb-ed，將P.P.提前1）被動(dòng)關(guān)系從句中只有wh-word+be+verb-ed時(shí)，則把過(guò)去分詞提到主語(yǔ)前，如：Airwhichiscompressedcanbeusedforseveralpurposes.應(yīng)簡(jiǎn)縮為：Compressedaircanbeusedforseveralpurposes.2）如果被動(dòng)關(guān)系從句中含有not時(shí)，則把not和動(dòng)詞提到主語(yǔ)名詞前，改變成un+動(dòng)詞，同時(shí)省去wh-word+be,如：Theliquidwhichwasnotwantedwasthrownaway.,簡(jiǎn)縮為：Theunwantedliquidwasthrownaway.3）如果被動(dòng)關(guān)系人名中含有方式副詞時(shí)，則把副詞和動(dòng)詞一起提到主語(yǔ)前，同時(shí)省去wh-word+be.如：Abridgewhichisbadlydesignedmayhaveashortlife.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Abadlydesignedbridgemayhaveashortlife.以上我的理解是：是用過(guò)去分詞來(lái)代替了定語(yǔ)從句來(lái)達(dá)到簡(jiǎn)縮的目的。4）如果在從句動(dòng)詞之后有介詞短語(yǔ)inthisway或inthismanner時(shí)，則把介詞短語(yǔ)縮減為so或thus,放在動(dòng)詞之前，同時(shí)省去wh-word+be,例如：Theresultswhichwereobtainedinthiswaywereinaccurate.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Theresultssoobtainedwereinaccurate.5)如果被動(dòng)關(guān)系從句中的動(dòng)詞為used+for+verb-ing時(shí)，只保留verb-ing,并移到主格名詞之前，例如：Thetoolwhichisusedforcuttingwasspeciallydesigned.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Thecuttingtoolwasspeciallydesigned.(個(gè)注：實(shí)質(zhì)上是用現(xiàn)分的前置來(lái)取代定從)5.4主動(dòng)關(guān)系的簡(jiǎn)縮5.4.1若主動(dòng)關(guān)系從句的動(dòng)詞后有介詞短語(yǔ)時(shí)，則變成動(dòng)詞+ing并省去wh-word,例如：Thislensproducesrayswhichconverge（會(huì)聚）towardapoint.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Thislensproducesraysconvergingtowardapoint.5.4.2若主動(dòng)關(guān)系從句的動(dòng)詞后沒(méi)有介詞短語(yǔ)，則動(dòng)詞加上ing后提到主語(yǔ)前，并省去wh-word，例如：Thislensproducesrayswhichconverge.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Thislensproducesconvergingrays.5.4.3若主動(dòng)關(guān)系從句的動(dòng)詞之后有副詞，則副詞變?yōu)樾稳菰~，提到動(dòng)詞之前，動(dòng)詞加上ing,用短線連接后一起提到主語(yǔ)前，例如：Ariverwhichflowsfast.變?yōu)椋篈fast-flowingriver.5.5被動(dòng)“if”和“when“從句的簡(jiǎn)縮當(dāng)主要從句和附屬?gòu)木涞闹髡Z(yǔ)都是論及同一事物時(shí)，由if和when引導(dǎo)的從句中的主語(yǔ)和be可以省去，例如：Anobjectbecomeshotifitisplacedinthesun.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Anobjectbecomeshotifplacedinthesun.Objectsbecomehotwhentheyareplacedinthesun.簡(jiǎn)縮為：Objectsbecomehotwhenplacedinthesun.6．使用帶IF的句子在科技英語(yǔ)中常用if…then…這個(gè)式子來(lái)表示一種論證或動(dòng)作的順序。句子的后半部分內(nèi)容取決于前半部分。Then在句子中對(duì)后續(xù)詞起到加強(qiáng)語(yǔ)氣的作用，如果該處不需要加強(qiáng)時(shí)，then可以省略。當(dāng)句子中兩部分的主語(yǔ)相同時(shí)，then常常省去。如：Iffoodisnotpreserved,itwillgobad.如果句子的兩部分對(duì)調(diào)，不用then.如：Thebeam(橫梁)willbreak,ifitissubjectedtoaheavyload.7.”tobe”和“tohave”優(yōu)先科技英語(yǔ)注重?cái)⑹龅目陀^性，傾向于把各種事物看作具有一定性質(zhì)的被動(dòng)的實(shí)體，而不作為主動(dòng)的作用者，下幾組例子都屬于科技英語(yǔ)，但科技工作者更喜歡用TOBE和tohave結(jié)構(gòu)代替動(dòng)詞，因?yàn)楹笳叩目陀^性更強(qiáng)些。如：Tiresistscorrosionbyairorwater.改為T(mén)iisresistanttocorrosionbyairorwater.或Tihasaresistancetocorrosionbyairorwater.如:Commonsaltdissolvesinwater.改為：Commonsaltissolubleinwater.如：Benzeneboilsat80.4Cundernormalpressure.改為：Benzenehasaboilingpointof80.4Cundernormalpressure.如：Thestoragevesselcanhold1,000liters.改為：Thestoragevesselhasacapacityof1,000liters.8語(yǔ)態(tài)：被動(dòng)與主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)8.1大量使用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)為了客觀地描述事物，文章中盡量用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)句子的意義更清楚，若句中過(guò)多的提到了人，不但不必要，而且易引起混亂；其次，被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)把事物作為主語(yǔ)，強(qiáng)調(diào)主語(yǔ)在事物的重要地位；第三，被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的句子更簡(jiǎn)短。如：Theexperimenterfixesalongmetalbarinaretortstandbyoneend.Heheatstheotherendinaflameuntilitbecomesred.Hethenmovesthebarandthestand(座)awayfromtheheat.Hefindsthatthetemperatureofthehotendofthebarfallsrapidly.改為：Alongmetalbarisfixedinaretortstandbyoneend.Theotherendisheatedinaflameuntilitbecomesred.Thebarandthestandarethenremovedawayfromtheheat.Thetemperatureofthehotendofthebarisfoundtofallrapidly.在漢語(yǔ)中的“被”字?？墒÷?。在科技英語(yǔ)中大多數(shù)被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)句子中都沒(méi)有作用者。如果完成某項(xiàng)工作是用一件工具，則用with,而不用BY.(3)must,should和被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。在指導(dǎo)書(shū)、警告和注意事項(xiàng)通知中特別普遍。有些用-EN結(jié)尾的動(dòng)詞，經(jīng)常與must和should一起出現(xiàn)在被動(dòng)句子中。下列動(dòng)詞是由形容詞或名詞派生的。如：tighten,weaken,strengthen,lengthen.（4）被動(dòng)態(tài)和不定式結(jié)構(gòu)常用來(lái)表示將要發(fā)生的或必須進(jìn)行的動(dòng)作。如Theexperimenthastoberepeated.Thenewfactoryistobeopenednextmonth.被動(dòng)態(tài)不定式結(jié)構(gòu)可用于表示不確定的事物。如：isthoughttobe…;…isestimatedtohavea…;此外，believed,said均可用于表示不確定，known和shown用于表示確定。8.2主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)第一人稱(chēng)主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)在科技論文中常使用第一人稱(chēng)主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)來(lái)表達(dá)著者在研究工作中獨(dú)有的做法、見(jiàn)解和新發(fā)現(xiàn)，使讀者清楚地知道性于該著者的首創(chuàng)和取得的進(jìn)展，免得使讀者辨別不清。但是總的來(lái)說(shuō)，第一人稱(chēng)主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)在同一篇文章中用的次數(shù)是較少的，一般不超過(guò)3至5次，因?yàn)檫@種文章所論述的對(duì)象是以客觀事物為主體的。9.關(guān)系從句使用關(guān)系從句的目的是避免寫(xiě)出一串的短句。它使作者在主要從句中表達(dá)主要信息的同時(shí)，在關(guān)系從句中表達(dá)次要的信息。主要從句一般是描述結(jié)果或表示原理，關(guān)系從句不是主要從句，它一般是描述條件和環(huán)境的，在科技英語(yǔ)中常由which引導(dǎo)。如：Anobjectisleftinthesun.Anobjectbecomeshot.兩句合為一句后：Anobjectwhichisleftinthesunbecomeshot.9.1縮短的關(guān)系從句。9.1.1被動(dòng)態(tài)關(guān)系從句在科技英語(yǔ)中，被動(dòng)態(tài)關(guān)系從句經(jīng)常被縮短，使句子更簡(jiǎn)明，其縮短方法是同時(shí)省去wh-word和be.如：Piecesofironwhichareleftintherainbecomerusty.變?yōu)椋篜iecesofironleftintherainbecomerusty.但是有介詞的從句不能被縮短。如fromwhich..含有情態(tài)動(dòng)詞的從句不以縮短，否則意義會(huì)發(fā)生變化。如：(A)Hereisalistoftheexperimentswhichwillbedonethisyear.(b)Hereisalistoftheexperimentswhichshouldbedonethisyear.(C)Hereisalistoftheexperimentswhichhavebeendonethisyear.這三句均不能縮短為：Hereisalistofexperimentsdonethisyear.這種情況感覺(jué)是過(guò)去分詞作后置定語(yǔ)，作用是主語(yǔ)和分詞之間的關(guān)系是被動(dòng)的。9.1.2主動(dòng)態(tài)關(guān)系從句縮短此時(shí)wh-word(which等)被省去，同時(shí)動(dòng)詞變?yōu)楝F(xiàn)在分詞。如：ThemanwholecturesonTuesdayisanexpertindynamics.縮短為：ThemanlecturingonTuesdayisanexpertindynamics.(個(gè)注:感覺(jué)這種用法實(shí)質(zhì)上可以理解為現(xiàn)在分詞作后置定語(yǔ)，且主語(yǔ)和現(xiàn)分所表達(dá)的關(guān)系呈現(xiàn)出主動(dòng)關(guān)系)。含有情態(tài)動(dòng)詞的主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)從句不能縮短。在wh-word和動(dòng)詞之間有名詞或代詞時(shí)，句子是不能縮短的。如：Thisisthepenwhichheuses.不能改為：Thisisthepenheusing.10.情態(tài)動(dòng)詞科技英語(yǔ)的句子中常含有情態(tài)動(dòng)詞，最覺(jué)的有三組：最常見(jiàn)的有三組：第一組為CAN,MAY,MIGHT,COULD;第二組為WILL;第三組為SHOULD,MUST,HAVETO.第一組情態(tài)動(dòng)詞常用以說(shuō)明可能性和概率，例如：breaks>canbreak>maybreak>could/might(這里并不can和may的過(guò)去時(shí))>cannot第二組WILL的意義可由下列句子的比較中看出：will+verb含有預(yù)測(cè)的含義；而不加will則表示一般性的規(guī)定。時(shí)態(tài)選擇1.對(duì)發(fā)現(xiàn)和發(fā)明的描述科學(xué)技術(shù)上的發(fā)現(xiàn)和發(fā)明都是過(guò)去的事情，為了說(shuō)明當(dāng)時(shí)的情況，除了用到過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)以外，還要用到其他時(shí)態(tài)，情況比較復(fù)雜。如：TheDiscoveryoftheVelocityofLightIn1676Romerdiscoveredthatlighttravelsatadeterminedspeed.HisdiscoverywasbasedonthefactthatafewyearspreviouslyotherastronomershadidentifiedthesatelliteoftheplanetJupiter.Ithadalsobeendiscoveredthateachsatellitetookacertaintimetomakeonecircuitoftheplanet.Romerobserved…2.對(duì)物體和物質(zhì)性質(zhì)的描述在科技寫(xiě)作中常需要對(duì)物體或物質(zhì)的性質(zhì)和用途等進(jìn)行描述，這種描述的特點(diǎn)是用單數(shù)，現(xiàn)在時(shí)，一般不舉例。3）時(shí).1一般過(guò)去時(shí)一般過(guò)去時(shí)用于描述發(fā)生在過(guò)去而現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)完成的動(dòng)作。描寫(xiě)過(guò)去的動(dòng)作時(shí)，常用到一些時(shí)間詞和時(shí)間短評(píng)，它們是early,thefirst,originally和initially.科技論文中的時(shí)態(tài)一般都只用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)；很少用一般過(guò)去時(shí)和現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)。若有具體的過(guò)去的時(shí)間，這時(shí)才會(huì)用一般過(guò)去時(shí)。時(shí).2現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)時(shí).2.1用在以when,that,inwhich引導(dǎo)的附屬?gòu)木渲?，且含有“持續(xù)一段時(shí)間的含義”。只用在一定情況下的這些從句中，來(lái)描寫(xiě)科學(xué)事實(shí)和事件。如：Itwillbeobservedthatsomeofthesugarhasnotdissolved.Turnofftheburnerwhenthesubstancehasbeenreducedtoash.上述句子從句中的動(dòng)作都有已經(jīng)持續(xù)了一段時(shí)間這一情況，再看下句：Turnofftheburnerwhenthesubstanceisreducedtoash.這個(gè)句子雖然可以這樣寫(xiě)，但比不上前句準(zhǔn)確，因?yàn)榧訜岬奈镔|(zhì)不會(huì)一下子變成灰的。但下面的一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)卻是正確的：Ironexpendswhenitisheated.因?yàn)榕蛎浭前殡S加熱同時(shí)發(fā)生的。小結(jié)：當(dāng)從句中的動(dòng)作要持續(xù)一段時(shí)間后才可執(zhí)行主句中的動(dòng)作時(shí)，從句中的謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞才用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。如果是同時(shí)發(fā)生的，則用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)就OK了。當(dāng)句子中有時(shí)間段的論述時(shí)，必需使用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。例如：Turnofftheburner(火焰)whenthesubstancehasbeenleftintheflameforthreeminutes.Aftertheyhaveboiledforfiveminutes,comparethelevelsoftheliquids.注意：一定是從句中的動(dòng)作表示的是持續(xù)的時(shí)間，而主句中的動(dòng)作是即時(shí)動(dòng)作。時(shí).2.2現(xiàn)在略前或現(xiàn)在前剛發(fā)生的動(dòng)作例如：Thebookhasrecentlybeenpublished.(表示剛剛被出版)如果提到具體的時(shí)間則用過(guò)去時(shí)：Thebookwaspublishedlastmonth.時(shí).2.3未說(shuō)明時(shí)間的現(xiàn)在以前的動(dòng)作Manhasbeentothemoon.Anetworkofcommunicationsatelliteshasbeenestablished.側(cè)重說(shuō)明事實(shí)，而不強(qiáng)調(diào)完成的時(shí)間。時(shí).2.4過(guò)去開(kāi)始延續(xù)到現(xiàn)在并可能延續(xù)到未來(lái)的動(dòng)作。如：Thishasbeenknownforfortyyears.Thishasbeenknownsince1930.若下面的則得用過(guò)去式表示，則變成：Thiswasfirstknownfortyyearsago.Thiswasfirstknownin1930.時(shí).2.5現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)的主要?jiǎng)釉~be和一些形容詞或介詞短語(yǔ)連用。即：BE和形容詞或介詞短語(yǔ)連用時(shí)。如：Penicillinhasbeeninusesince1943.來(lái)代替：Penicillinwasfirstusedin1943.Thishasbeenoutofuseforayear.來(lái)代替：Thishasnotbeenusedforayear.其他常用形容詞和介詞短語(yǔ)可用下式表示：Thishas(thesehave)beenopen…independent…inexistence…inuse/outofuseinoperation/outofoperationunderconsideration/underdiscussion…這種結(jié)構(gòu)在形容詞或介詞短評(píng)之后要用since說(shuō)明起始時(shí)間，如：TheU.N.hasbeeninexistencesince1943.時(shí).3It+被動(dòng)態(tài)動(dòng)詞+that…在科技英語(yǔ)中常用到it-that結(jié)構(gòu)，其中的it是虛的，并不指代任何東西，它主要有下列四種句型：Ithasbeen{showndemonstratedthat….proved}如：IthasthereforebeenshownthatanglesABCandDEFareequal.2)Itwillbe{seennotednoticedobserved}that…如：ItwillbenotedthatthisresultissimilartothatobtainedbyFisherandJones.此處will并不表示未來(lái)，它的意思是說(shuō)：Thereaderwillseethat…3)Itusedtobethoughtthat…Itwasoncethoughtthat…用來(lái)表示過(guò)去曾認(rèn)為正確的而現(xiàn)在已不認(rèn)為是正確的說(shuō)法的一種方式。4）Althoughitisoftensaidthat…,thisisnottrue.Itis{oftencommonlygenerally}saidthat…,but…believed.如：Itiscommonlybelievedthat…,butthisisnottrue.這是用來(lái)否定某些廣為相信的俗見(jiàn)的一種方式。同位語(yǔ)和插入語(yǔ)同.1）同位語(yǔ)同位語(yǔ)（Appositive）是指句子的某一成分后面有另外的詞、短語(yǔ)或從句（同位語(yǔ)從句）對(duì)該成分作進(jìn)一步說(shuō)明，在語(yǔ)法上和該成分處于同一地位。在科技英語(yǔ)中廣泛使用同位語(yǔ)。其用法如下：同位語(yǔ)在說(shuō)明的句子成分之后，其間沒(méi)有逗號(hào)，如：Unlikeoxygen,theelementnitrogenisnotactive.同位語(yǔ)前后有逗號(hào)或破折號(hào)，例如：Watercanbedecomposedbyenergy,acurrentofelectricity.又如：Thesetechnologiescreateakindofreal-time,multilingualintercom,saysJohnPatrick,vicepresidentofinternettechnologyatIBM.3)用or引出同位語(yǔ)如：Undercertainconditionsthiscompoundsplitsup,ordecomposes,intotwosubstances.4)用suchas引用同位語(yǔ)5）用連詞that引出從句作同位語(yǔ)，稱(chēng)為同位語(yǔ)從句，例如：Thisexperimentleadstotheconclusionthatlikechargespepeleachotherbutunlikechargesattracteachother.同.2)插入語(yǔ)插入語(yǔ)（Parenthesis）是指在句中插入的詞、短語(yǔ)或句子，用逗號(hào)隔開(kāi)而與句中成分沒(méi)有語(yǔ)法關(guān)系的部分。單個(gè)詞作插入語(yǔ)這類(lèi)詞有indeed,certainly,surely,however等。如：Thismachineisup-to-date,indeed.2)介詞短語(yǔ)作插入詞這類(lèi)短語(yǔ)有inshort,ofcourse,ingeneral,infact,inotherword,forexample等，如：Amodernaircraft,forexample,carriesquitealotofelectronicapparatus.3)介詞短語(yǔ)作插入語(yǔ)這類(lèi)短語(yǔ)有g(shù)enerallyspeaking,strictlyspeaking等，如：Generallyspeaking,ironisapttorust.4)不定式短語(yǔ)作插入語(yǔ)這類(lèi)短語(yǔ)有：tobesure,tosumup,totellthetruth等，如（毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)）Tobesure,theatomictheoryhelpsusagreatdealinunderstandingallmatter.5)插入句是在一個(gè)勉勵(lì)子中插入另外一個(gè)或短或長(zhǎng)的句子，短的有Iamsure,Ibelieve,Ith