領(lǐng)導(dǎo)理論與決策課件

WelcomePublicLeadershipDecisionMaking&Part1:Theessentialsofleadership

§1.ConceptsofLeadership§2.Whatdotheleadersdo?§3.leadershipandmanagement§1.ConceptsofLeadership

Organizationsare:(1)socialentitiesthat(2)aregooddirected,(3)aredesignedasdeliberatelystructuredandcoordinatedactivitysystems,and(4)arelinkedtotheexternalenvironment.What’sleadership?Leadershipisaforcethatcreatesacapacityamongagroupofpeopletodosomethingthatisdifferentorbetter.Thiscouldbereflectedinamorecreativeoutcome,orahigherlevelofperformance.Inessenceleadershipisanagencyofchangeandcouldentailinspiringotherstodomorethantheywouldotherwisehavedone,orweredoing.FactorsofleadershipTherearefourmajorfactorsinleadership:LeadershipFramework(1)

BEaprofessional.Examples:Beloyaltotheorganization,performselflessservice,takepersonalresponsibility.BEaprofessionalwhopossessgoodcharactertraits.Examples:Honesty,competence,candor,commitment,integrity,courage,straightforwardness,imagination.LeadershipFramework(2)KNOWthefourfactorsofleadership-follower,leader,communication,situation.KNOWyourself.Examples:strengthsandweaknessofyourcharacter,knowledge,andskills.KNOWhumannature.Examples:Humanneeds,emotions,andhowpeoplerespondtostress.KNOWyourjob.Examples:beproficientandbeabletotrainothersintheirtasks.KNOWyourorganization.Examples:wheretogoforhelp,itsclimateandculture,whotheunofficialleadersare.LeadershipFramework(3)DOprovidedirection.Examples:goalsetting,problemsolving,decisionmaking,planning.DOimplement.Examples:communicating,coordinating,supervising,evaluating.DOmotivate.Examples:developmoralandespritintheorganization,train,coach,counsel.PrinciplesofLeadership<Knowyourselfandseekself-improvement

<Betechnicallyproficient

<Seekresponsibilityandtakeresponsibilityforyouractions

<Makesoundandtimelydecisions

<Settheexample

<Knowyourpeopleandlookoutfortheirwell-being

<Keepyourworkersinformed

<Developasenseofresponsibilityinyourworkers

<Ensurethattasksareunderstood,supervised,andaccomplished

<Trainasateam

<Usethefullcapabilitiesofyourorganization

§2.Whatdotheleadersdo?LeadingpeopleInfluencingpeopleCommandingpeopleGuidingpeopleLeadershipisarelationship;therelationshipisoneofservicetoapurposeandservicetopeople.TheLeadershipChallenge --Kouzes&PosnerLeadership:AnArtofPossibility“Thenewleaderdependsforhis/herpowerontheabilitytomakeotherpeoplepowerful.Myjobistoenlivenorawakepossibilityinotherpeople.”

--BenjaminZanderTypesofLeadersLeaderbythepositionachievedLeaderbypersonality,charismaLeaderbymoralexampleLeaderbypowerheldIntellectualleaderLeaderbecauseofabilitytoaccomplishthings§3.leadershipandmanagementWhatdoleadersreallydo?

Kotter(1990)feltthatleadershipandmanagementaretwodistinctiveacomplementarysystems,eachhavingitsownfunctionanditsowncharacteristicactivities,butbotharenecessaryforthemanagementofcomplexorganisations.AccordingtoKotter,managementisaboutplanning,controlling,andputtingappropriatestructuresandsystemsinplace,whereasleadershiphasmoretodowithanticipatingchange,copingwithchange,andadoptingavisionarystance.CommonActivitiesPlanningOrganizingDirectingControllingPlanning

ManagerPlanningBudgetingSetstargetsEstablishesdetailedstepsAllocatesresourcesLeaderDevisesstrategySetsdirectionCreatesvisionOrganizingManagerCreatesstructureJobdescriptionsStaffingHierarchyDelegatesTrainingLeaderGetspeopleonboardforstrategyCommunicationNetworksDirectingWork

ManagerSolvesproblemsNegotiatesBringstoconsensus

LeaderEmpowerspeopleCheerleaderControllingManagerImplementscontrolsystemsPerformancemeasuresIdentifiesvariancesFixesvariancesLeaderMotivateInspireGivessenseofaccomplishmentManagersvs.LeadersManagersFocusonthingsDothingsrightPlanOrganizeDirectControlFollowstherulesLeadersFocusonpeopleDotherightthingsInspireInfluenceMotivateBuildShapeentities領(lǐng)導(dǎo)與管理之區(qū)分領(lǐng)導(dǎo)建立和改變組織的文化尋找新途徑做正確的事以激起信賴感來促成發(fā)展專注於人,以德服人作為一種藝術(shù)關(guān)注於創(chuàng)造未來的願景側(cè)重人,重視效能目標(biāo)源自于渴望制定任務(wù),提供人員方向感適用高階的決策階層管理建立和維護(hù)組織的結(jié)構(gòu)依循既定途徑把事做對以控制方式來促成維護(hù)專注於制度,以力服人作為一種科學(xué)關(guān)注於達(dá)成目前的目標(biāo)側(cè)重人.事.財.物,重視效率目標(biāo)源自於需求設(shè)計和實行計畫,執(zhí)行工作適用中階的執(zhí)行階層

SubjectLeaderManagerEssenceChangeStabilityFocusLeadingpeopleManagingworkHaveFollowersSubordinatesHorizonLong-termShort-termSeeksVisionObjectivesApproachSetsdirection

PlansdetailDecisionFacilitatesMakesPowerPersonalcharismaFormalauthorityAppealtoHeartHeadEnergyPassionControlDynamicProactiveReactivePersuasionSellTellAModelofLeadershipLeadershipManagementVisionCapability

SubjectLeaderManagerStyleTransformationalTransactionalExchangeExcitementforworkMoneyforworkLikesStrivingActionWantsAchievementResultsRiskTakesMinimizesRulesBreaksMakesConflictUsesAvoidsDirectionNewroadsExistingroadsTruthSeeksEstablishesConcernWhatisrightBeingrightCreditGivesTakesBlameTakesBlames“Leadersdotherightthings,managersdothingsright.”

－－WarrenBennisTheBossandtheleaderLeadershipStylesDelegatingLowrelationship/lowtaskResponsibilityWillingemployeesParticipatingHighrelationship/lowtaskFacilitatedecisionsAblebutunwillingSellingHightask/highrelationshipExplaindecisionsWillingbutunableTellingHighTask/LowrelationshipProvideinstructionCloselysuperviseNewLeadersTakeNoteGeneralAdviceTakeadvantageofthetransitionperiodGetadviceandcounselShowempathytopredecessorLearnleadershipChallengesNeedknowledgequicklyEstablishnewrelationshipsExpectationsPersonalequilibriumNewLeaderTrapsNotlearningquicklyIsolationKnow-it-allKeepingexistingteamTakingontoomuchCapturedbywrongpeopleSuccessorsyndromePart2:ThetheoriesofleadershipTraitTheory—LeadersarebornGreatEventsTheory—CrisescreateleadersTransformationTheory—PeoplechoosetobecomeleadersLeadershipAttributesEmotionalRationalEthicalTrustConfidenceRespectCommitmentCharacterCouragePassionCommunicatorGeneralKnowledgeTechnicalSkillsExampleRiskTakerHonestyIntegrityEquitableMoralTraitTheoryLeadership

TraitsWhatisthedefinitionofaLeader?OnethatleadsorguidesOneinchargeorcommandofothersOnewhohasinfluence,especiallyofapoliticalnatureWhataretheCommonTraitsofaLeader?Canyoufindcharacteristicscommontothegreatleadersofbothpastandpresent?Doeseveryleaderhavetohavecertaintraits?Fordiscussion:Whatmightcertaintraitsbe?Isthereanytraitthatisfundamentaltoleadership?

TableActivityEachtableneedstoselectwhattheyconsiderthemostimportanttrait.Whatothertraitsareimportant?Whattraitsarenot?Canyounameananti-hero/villianthatalsohasthesetraits?CommonLeadershipTraits5majorstudiesStodgill(1948)Mann(1959)Stodgill(1974)Lord,DeVader,Alliger(1986)KirpatrickandLocke(1991)Whatdotheyhaveincommon?IntelligenceDefinition:ThecapacitytoacquireandapplyknowledgeApplication:TomakedifficultdecisionsTofindinformationTosynthasizeandinterpretdataDiscussion:Isitnecessarytobeintelligenttobeagoodleader?Self-ConfidenceDefinitionConfidenceinoneselforone’sabilitiesApplication:WillingtotackledifficultsituationsConfidentinownabilitiesDiscussion:Canself-confidencebeahinderanceincertainsituationsand/orcontexts?DeterminationDefinitionThequalityofbeingresoluteorfirminpurpose;resolutenessApplication:WillingtostandresoluteforacauseWillingtobackupowndecisionsandactionsDiscussion:Canaleaders’determinationblindhim/hertootherpossibilities?IntegrityDefinitionRigidadherencetoacodeorstandardofvalues:probity.Application:Beingabletomakethe‘right’decisionModellingethicalproprietyDiscussion:Canintegrityhinderaleaderfrommakingcertaindecisions?SociabilityDefinitionThedispositionorqualityofbeingsociable.Application:BeingabletoworkwithdifferentgroupstowardsacommongoalBeingseenasapositiveleaderfromavarietyofgroupsDiscussion:Isitpossibletobeaneffectiveleaderwithoutsocialskills?Whatdoesitmean?TraitApproach:FocusessolelyontheleaderEmphasisoncoretraitsfor‘success’OrganizationsshouldfocustheselectionprocessonthesetraitsEffectiveforindividuals:Allowsforgrowth/changereflectionContextualIssues?Butwhatofthesituation?Whatofthesubordinates?Whatoftheculminationofdifferenteventsandsituations???Strengths/WeaknessesStrengthsAppealingtothemassesValidatedbyyearsofresearchGives‘benchmarks’forsuccessWeaknessesNoconclusivelistof‘traits’Ignoresituations/contextsIgnorescontextualsituationswherecertaintraitsaremoreeffectiveConclusionTraitApproachdelineatesthemostcommontraitsfoundinsuccessfulleadersAllowsforgrowthshowspossiblestrengthsandweaknessesUsefulasa‘tool’Shouldn’tbetakensolelyasanindicatorofsuccess斯托格迪爾的六種領(lǐng)導(dǎo)特性體格：儀錶，身高，體重；社會背景智力：卓越的判斷，果斷，知識，口才好；人格：人格完整，自信，機靈；任務(wù)：高度的成就及責(zé)任感，創(chuàng)造力及任務(wù)取向；社會：各種活動的參與者，能與人合作。Traittheories:Isthereasetofcharacteristicsthatdetermineagoodleader?Personality?Dominanceandpersonalpresence?Charisma?Selfconfidence?Achievement?Abilitytoformulateaclearvision?Traittheories:Dosuchcharacteristicsproducegoodleaders?Isleadershipmorethanjustbringingaboutchange?Doesthisimplythatleadersarebornnotbred?Historicfindingsrevealthatleadersandfollowers

varyby

-intelligence

-dominance

-self-confidence

-levelofenergyandactivity

-task-relevantknowledgeContemporaryfindingsshowthat

-peopletendtoperceivethatsomeoneisaleaderwhenheor

sheexhibitstraitsassociatedwithintelligence,masculinity,anddominance

-peoplewanttheirleaderstobecredible

-credibleleadersarehonest,forward-looking,inspiring,and

competentLeadershipTraits:

representthepersonalcharacteristicsthatdifferentiateleadersfromfollowers.TraitTheory(continued)Genderandleadership -menandwomenwereseenasdisplayingmoretaskand

socialleadership,respectively -womenusedamoredemocraticorparticipativestylethanmen,andmenusedamoreautocraticanddirectivestylethanwomen -menandwomenwereequallyassertive -womenexecutives,whenratedbytheirpeers,managersanddirectreports,scoredhigherthantheirmalecounterpartsonavarietyofeffectivenesscriteriaDiscussion:WillwomenleadersdobetterthanmenleadersinKnowledge-basedeconomyandPost-modernity?

LeadershipTraitsIntelligenceMoreintelligentthannon-leadersScholarshipKnowledgeBeingabletogetthingsdonePhysicalDoesn’tseetobecorrelatedPersonalityVerbalfacilityHonestyInitiativeAggressiveSelf-confidentAmbitiousOriginalitySociabilityAdaptabilityBehavioralStylesTheoryBehavioural:Impliesthatleaderscanbetrained–focusesonthewayofdoingthingsStructurebasedbehaviouraltheories–focusontheleaderinstitutingstructures–taskorientatedRelationshipbasedbehaviouraltheories–focusonthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofrelationships–processorientatedOhioStateStudiesidentifiedtwocriticaldimensionsofleaderbehavior.

1.Consideration:creatingmutualrespectandtrustwithfollowers

2.InitiatingStructure:organizinganddefiningwhatgroup

membersshouldbedoingUniversityofMichiganStudiesidentifiedtwoleadershipstylesthatweresimilartotheOhioStatestudies

-onestylewasemployeecenteredandtheotherwasjobcenteredBlakeandMouton’sManagerialGridrepresentsfourleadershipstylesfoundbycrossingconcernforproductionandconcernforpeople

Researchshowsthatthereisnotonebeststyleofleadership.Theeffectivenessofaparticularleadershipstyledependsonthesituationathand.1-99-95-51-19-1高關(guān)心人低低關(guān)心生產(chǎn)高管理方格圖

(1)l—1型，“貧乏管理”(impoverishmanagement)：對人、對生產(chǎn)都很少關(guān)心，是“一無所長”、不稱職的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，註定失敗。

(2)1—9型，“俱樂部式管理”(country—clubmanagement)：對人關(guān)心，企業(yè)內(nèi)充滿友好氣氛，認(rèn)為只要人們心情舒暢，生產(chǎn)就一定會上去。對生產(chǎn)控制、監(jiān)督、規(guī)章制度等不重視。

(3)9—1型，“權(quán)威一服從管理”(authority—obediencemanagement)：只問生產(chǎn)，不關(guān)心人。用工作條件來提高生產(chǎn)率，而沒有充分利用人力資源因素，靠權(quán)力管理。

(4)5—5型，“組織人管理”(organizationmanmanagement)：這是一種中間式管理，對人和生產(chǎn)的關(guān)心程度保持適中，多數(shù)是“仁慈式、獨裁型”的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，做不出什麼成績，但又不出大的差錯。

(5)9—9型，“協(xié)作管理”(teammanagement)：這是一種戰(zhàn)鬥集體管理，生產(chǎn)任務(wù)完成好，職工關(guān)係協(xié)調(diào)，士氣旺盛，職工利益與企業(yè)目標(biāo)相結(jié)合，是團結(jié)協(xié)作的最有效的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。SkillsandBestPractices:TipsforImprovingLeaderEffectivenessBehavior RecommendedBehaviorsListenIntenselylistentowhatothershavetosay.Determinethetruecauseofperformanceproblems.ExamineThinkthroughproblemsfromallperspectives.Donotplayfavoritesandfindsolutionsthatbenefiteveryoneinvolved.AssistHelpotherstolearnfrommistakesanderrors.DevelopExplaintherationalefordecisionsandimplementfairpoliciesandprocedures.EncourageProvideemployeeswiththeresourcesneededtodoajob.Gentlypushpeopletoadvanceintomoredemandingroles.RecognizePraisepeoplefortheirgoodwork.Focusonthepositivewheneverpossible.House’sPath-GoalTheory

EmployeeCharacteristics

-Locusofcontrol

-Taskability

-Needforachievement

-Experience

-Needforclarity

EnvironmentalFactors

-Employee’stask

-Authoritysystem

-Workgroup

LeadershipStyles

-Directive

-Supportive

-Participative

-Achievementoriented

EmployeeAttitudes

andBehavior

-Jobsatisfaction

-Acceptanceofleader

-Motivation情境思考張經(jīng)理又在公司拼到十點以後了，想到昨天年輕有為的李小寶剛辭職，用什麼辦法都留不住他…這幾年來，底下的新人沒有一個做滿一年的，所以他才會留得這麼晚…想到前陣子原料缺貨，他請仲介幫忙訂貨，自己也親自向別家公司調(diào)貨，最後雖然都調(diào)到貨了，但卻得請仲介再幫忙退貨…問題是？

TransactionalversusCharismaticLeadershipTransactionalLeadership:

focusesontheinterpersonalinteractionsbetweenmanagersandemployeesTransactionalLeaders

-usecontingentrewardstomotivateemployees

-exertcorrectiveactiononlywhenemployees

failtoobtainperformancegoalsTransactionalversusCharismaticLeadership(continued)CharismaticLeadership:

emphasizessymbolicleaderbehaviorthattransformsemployeestopursueorganizationalgoalsoverself-interestsCharismaticLeaders

-usevisionaryandinspirationalmessages

-relyonnon-verbalcommunication

-appealtoideologicalvalues

-attempttointellectuallystimulateemployees

-displayconfidenceinselfandfollowers

-sethighperformanceexpectationsForclassdiscussion:

Shouldaleaderbebothtransactionalandcharismatic?Ischarismaticleadershiponlycriticalforseniorexecutivesandnotforentrylevelsupervisorsormanagers?CharismaticModelofLeadershipIndividualandOrganizationalCharacteristicsLeader

behaviorEffectson

followersand

workgroupsOutcomesTraitsLeaderestablishesavisionIncreasedintrinsicmotivation,achievementorientation,andgoalpursuitPersonalcommitmenttoleaderandvisionOrganizationalCultureCharismaticModelofLeadership(con’t)IndividualandOrganizationalCharacteristicsLeader

behaviorEffectson

followersand

workgroupsOutcomesOrganizationalCultureLeaderestablisheshighperformanceexpectationsanddisplaysconfidenceinhim/herselfandthecollectiveabilitytorealizethevisionLeadermodelsthedesiredvalues,traits,beliefs,andbehaviorsneededtorealizethevisionIncreasedidentificationwiththeleaderandthecollectiveinterestsoforganizationalmembersIncreasedcohesionamongworkgroupmembersIncreasedself-esteem,self-efficacy,andintrinsicinterestsingoalaccomplishmentIncreasedrolemodelingofcharismaticleadershipSelf-sacrificialbehaviorOrganizationalcommitmentTaskmeaningfulnessandsatisfactionIncreasedindividualgroup,andorganizationalperformanceTraitsTheLeader-MemberExchange

(LMXModel)Thismodelisbasedontheideathatoneoftwodistincttypesofleader-memberexchangerelationshipsevolve,andtheseexchangesarerelatedtoimportantworkoutcomes.

-in-groupexchange:apartnershipcharacterizedby

mutualtrust,respectandliking

-out-groupexchange:apartnershipcharacterizedby

alackofmutualtrust,respectandlikingResearchsupportsthismodelSubstitutesforLeadershipSubstitutesforleadershiprepresentsituationalvariablesthatcansubstitutefor,neutralize,orenhancetheeffectsofleadership.Researchshowsthatsubstitutesforleadershipdirectlyinfluenceemployeeattitudesandperformance.SubstitutesforLeadershipCharacteristicRelationship-OrientedorConsiderateLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryTask-OrientedorInitiatingStructureLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryOftheSubordinate1.Ability,experience,training,knowledgeX2.NeedforIndependenceXX3.“Professional”orientationXX4.IndifferencetowardorganizationalrewardsXXOftheTask5.UnambiguousandRoutineX6.MethodicallyinvariantX7.ProvidesitsownfeedbackconcerningaccomplishmentX8.Intrinsicallysatisfying.XCharacteristicRelationship-OrientedorConsiderateLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryTask-OrientedorInitiatingStructureLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryOftheOrganization9.Formalization(explicitplans,goals,andareasofresponsibility)X10.Inflexibility(rigid,unbendingrulesandprocedures)XX11.HighlyspecifiedandactiveadvisoryandstafffunctionsXX12.Closelyknit,cohesiveworkgroupsXX13.Organizationalrewardsnotwiththeleader’scontrol14.SpatialdistancebetweensuperiorandsubordinateXSubstitutesforLeadership(cont)TheBelbinTeamRoles

TheBelbinModelisarobustandhighlyeffectiveconceptonteamworkthatistheproductofmanyyearsofresearch.BritishpsychologistDrMeredithBelbinhasworkedtoachieveacoherentandaccuratesystemthatexplainsindividualbehaviouranditsinfluenceonteamsuccess.Thesebehaviouralpatternsarecalled"TeamRoles"andtheseninerolescoverthetypesofindividualbehaviouratworkinateam.Belbin’sTeamRolesAction-orientedroles:Shaper,Implementer,andCompleterFinisherPeople-orientedroles:Co-ordinator,TeamworkerandResourceInvestigatorCerebralroles:Plant,Monitor,EvaluatorandSpecialistOverall

BelbinRoleLeadingCoordinatorShaperDoingImplementerCompleter/finisherThinkingMonitor/EvaluatorPlantSpecialistSocializingResource/investigatorTeamWorker1.Plant(PL)Advancingnewideasandstrategieswithspecialattentiontomajorissuesandlookingforpossiblebreaksinapproachtotheproblemthatthegroupisconfronting.2.ResourceInvestigator(RI)Exploringandreportingonideas,developmentsandresourcesoutsidethegroup,creatingexternalcontactsthatmaybeusefultotheteamandconductingnegotiations.3.Co-ordinator(CO)Controllingthewayinwhichtheteammovesforwardtowardsthegroupobjectivesbymakingthebestuseofteamresources;recognisingwheretheteam'sstrengthsandweaknesseslieandensuringthebestuseismadeofeachmemberspotential.4.Shaper(SH)Shapingthewayinwhichtheteameffortisapplied,directingattentiongenerallytothesettingofobjectivesandprioritiesandseekingtoimposesomeshapeorpatternongroupdiscussionandontheoutcomeofgroupactivities.5.MonitorEvaluator(ME)Analysingproblems,evaluatingideasandsuggestionssothattheteamisbetterplacedtotakebalanceddecisions.6.TeamWorker(TW)Supportingmembersintheirstrengths;eg.Buildingonsuggestions,underpinningmembersintheirshortcomings,improvingcommunicationsbetweenmembersandfosteringteamspiritgenerally.7.Implementer(IMP)Turningconceptsandideasintopracticalworkingprocedures;carryingoutagreedplanssystematicallyandefficiently.8.Completer/Finisher(CF)Ensuringtheteamisprotectedasfaraspossiblefrommistakesofbothcommissionandomission;activelysearchingforaspectsofworkthatneedamorethanusualdegreeofattention;andmaintainingasenseofurgencywithintheteam.9.Specialist(SP)貝爾濱團隊角色理論.pptFeedingtechnicalinformationintothegroup.Translatingfromgeneralintotechnicalterms.Contributingaprofessionalviewpointonthesubjectunderdiscussion.

Let’sTakeaBreak!Part3:ContextualleadershipTheEnvironmentofOrganizationTheEnvironmentofLeadershipOrganizationalPolitics第一節(jié)組織的環(huán)境PerspectivesofOrganizationTheoriesDifferencesintheMultiplePerspectivesofOrganizationTheoryPerspectiveSubject/FocusMethodResultClassicalModernSymbolic-InteractivePostmodern*theeffectsoforganizationonsociety*managementoforganization*observationandhistoricalanalysis*personalreflectiononexperience*typologiesandtheoreticalframeworks*prescriptionsformanagementpractice*theorganizationthrough”objective”measures*theorganizationthrough”subjective”measures*organizationtheoryandtheorizingpractices*descriptivemeasures*correlationamongstandardizedmeasures*participantobservation*ethnographicinterviewing*deconstruction*critiqueoftheorizingpractices*comparativestudies*multivariatestatisticalanalyses*narrativetextsandorganizationalethnographies*reflexivityandreflexiveaccountsTheEnvironmentofOrganizationModernisminfluencesorganizationaloutcomesbyimposingconstraintsanddemandingadaptationuncertaintyofthedemandoftheenvironmentSymbolicastheoreticalconstructhavematerialconsequences,butareprimarilysymbolicinterpretationTheEnvironmentofOrganizationPostmodernproblematizethedistinctionboundarylessorganization,networkmodelandvirtualorganizationcritiqueofmodernism:exploitationofenvironmentandsilenceoncorporateethicsTheEnvironmentofOrganizationThreemodernistelementsofenvironmentTheinterorganizationalnetworkinteractionwiththeotherorganizationstoacquirerawmaterials,hireemployees,securecapital,obtainknowledge,andbuild,leaseorbuyfacilitiesandequipmentinteractionwiththecustomersTheEnvironmentofOrganizationTheinterorganizationalnetwork,themanager’sviewORGUnionsCustomersSuppliersPartnersRegulatoryagenciesCompetitorsSpecialinterestsTheEnvironmentofOrganizationORGABCTheinterorganizationalnetwork,thenetworkanalysisTheEnvironmentofOrganizationThegeneralenvironmenthaveaninfluenceonorganization,butitismoredifficulttodiscernTheEnvironmentofOrganizationORGNetworkLegalPhysicalEconomyTechnologySocialPoliticalCultureTheGeneralEnvironmentTheEnvironmentofOrganizationInternationalandglobalenvironmentUnitedNations,InternationalMonetaryFund,WorldTradeOrganization(WTO),GreenPeace

……TheEnvironmentofOrganization

Perlmutter’s(1969)fourtypesofinternationalizationEthnocentricforeignsubsidiarieshaveonlyalittleofautonomystrategicdecisionsaremadeindomesticheadquarterskeypositionsinheadquarterssubsidiariesaremanagedbyexpatriatesfromhomecountryTheEnvironmentofOrganizationPolycentriceachsubsidiaryasadistinctnationalentitywithsomedecision-makingautonomysubsidiariesusuallymanagedbylocalnationals,buttheyarenotpromotedtoheadquartershomecountrynationalsareseldomtransferredtoforeignsubsidiariesTheEnvironmentofOrganizationGeocentricworldwideapproachtooperationsbothheadquartersandsubsidiariesformauniquecontributionandwithitsuniquecompetencenationalityisignoredinfavourofabilityTheEnvironmentofOrganizationRegiocentricreflectsthegeographicstrategyandstructureofmultinationalutilizesawiderpoolofmanagersbutinalimitedwayexpatriatesmaymoveoutsidebutonlywithintheparticulargeographicregionregionalmanagersmaynotbepromotedtoheadquartersbuttheyenjoyadegreeofregionalautonomyindecisionmakingOrganization-EnvironmentRelationContingencytheorystableorrapidlychangingenvironmentstable:routineactivities,authority,distinctresponsibilitymechanisticorganizationrapidlychanging:flexibility,fittingintochangingworkpatternsorganicorganizationactuallyorganizationsarecombinationsfunctionalrelationtoenvironmentcontingencyOrganization-EnvironmentRelationResourcedependencetheoryenvironmentisapowerfulconstraintonorganizationalactivitymanagersnavigateintheenvironmentaldominationpower/dependencerelationsbetweenthenetworkactorspowerofenvironmentistheresultoftheneedforresourcesOrganization-EnvironmentRelationORGCapitalinputs(investors)Rawmaterialinputs(suppliers)Knowledgeandequipmentinputs(technology)Outputs(customers)Labourinputs(employees)ResourcedependenceanalysisOrganization-EnvironmentRelationPopulationecologysamestartingpointasrdt,butlooksorganizationsfromtheperspectiveoftheenvironmentthepatternsofsuccessandfailureamongalltheorganizationsthatcompetewithinagivenresourcepoolenvironmenthavethepowertoselectthe‘fittest’competitorsenvironmentisnotthewhole(asinDarwinism),butinsteadanicheniche:resourcepooluponwhic