文體學復習兩份

文體學復習Style:Mannersindicatingprominentlinguisticfeatures,devicesorpatterns,most(orleast)frequentlyoccurinaparticulartextofaparticularvarietyoflanguage.(有許多種，此為inthisbook,general,linguistic-oriented),P5Stylistics:isabranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesinascientificandsystematicwayconcerningthemanners/linguisticfeaturesofdifferentvarietiesoflanguageatdifferentlevels.Literarystylistics:concentratessolelyonuniqueandoveralllinguisticfeaturesofthevariousgenresofliterature.（考點）★★ThedevelopmentofstylisticsThescopeofstudyThreecrucialaspectsofspeech:①Substances[soundsandsymbols];②Form;③SituationStylisticanalysis:isgenerallyconcernedwiththeuniquenessofatext(whatispeculiartotheuseoflanguageinagiventextfordeliveringthemessage).Thisnaturallyinvolvescomparisonsofthelanguageofthetextwiththatusedinconventionaltypesofdiscourse.Stylisticiansmayalsowishtocharacterizethestyleofagiventextbysystematicallycomparingthelanguageusesinthattextwiththoseinanother.Thus,wemayconcludethatstylisticanalysisisanactivitywhichishighlycomparativeinnature.Practice5.Analyzethefollowingtext.Policeman:What’syourname,boy?Blackpsychiatrist:Dr.Poussiant.I’maphysician.Policeman:What’syourfirstname,boy?Blackpsychiatrist:Alvin.Theword‘boy’maybeusedtoaddressamaleinferior.Inaboveconversation,theformisusedtoaddressaphysician,whoisusuallyaccordedhighrespectintheUSandisaddressedas‘Dr.So-and-so’(Title+Surname).Insistentlyusingtheform‘boy’,thewhitepolicemanshowshisracistcontemptofandprejudiceagainsttheblackpeople.Linguisticdescription:referstotheexplorationandclassificationoflinguisticfeaturesofagiventext.★每個category下面的各個分類(1)ThePhonologyCategory:Phonologyhereisusedtorefertothesystemofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(2)TheLexicalCategory:Lexisisusedheretorefertothechoiceofwords.(3)TheSyntactic/Grammatical/Category:Syntaxisusedheretorefertorulesfororderingandconnectingwordsintosentences.(4)SemanticCategory:Semanticsisusedheretorefertothemeaningofwords,expressions,etc.andbywhatmeansthemeaningisconveyedfromtheaddressertotheaddressee.Procedureoflinguisticdescription1)Worksystematicallythroughthetextandnotedownpointswefeelofsomestylisticsignificancerespectivelyunderthevariousheadings.2)Quantifythefrequencyofalinguisticfeature.3)Assesstheimportanceofstylisticfeatures.4)Makestatementsabouttheoveralllinguisticpictureofthetextinquestion,bringingtogetherdiversefeaturestoshowhowtheyformacoherent,integratedpattern,andmakingjudgmentsaboutorinterpretingthesignificanceofsuchpatternsinrelationtothecontextofthetextasawhole.5、（1）Text:Atextisanypassage,spokenorwritten,ofwhateverlength,thatformsaunifiedwhole.Atextisthenasemanticunit,aunitnotonlyofform,butalsoofmeaning.Atextisrealizedbyasequenceoflanguageunits,whethertheyaresentencesornot.Cohesivedevices:ImplicitconnectivityExplicitconnectivity1)Transitionalwords/phrases2)Grammaticaldevice①Ellipsis②Substitution③Coreference3)Lexicalreiteration材料Examinethefollowingconversation,findoutwhetherlinguisticunitsinitareovertlycohesiveornot.A:Seewhothatis.B:I’minpyjamas.A:OK.? Linguisticunitsintheconversationarenotovertlycohesive.Inthistext,therelevanceofB’sremarktoA’sfirstremarkisconveyedbypragmaticimplication.“I’minpyjamas”impliesanexcusefornotcomplyingwithA’scommand(=“No,Ican’t,becauseI’minpyjamas.”)A’ssecondremarkimpliesthatheacceptsB’sexcuseandundertakestodohimselfwhatheoriginallyaskedBtodo(=OK.I’llgomyselfandsee.”Textsarethereforerecognizedasappropriatelycoherentinactualuse.Afullunderstandingofatextisoftenimpossiblewithoutreferencetothecontextinwhichitoccurs.（2）Context:Contextreferstoallelementsofacommunicativesituation.(Oneis“l(fā)inguisticcontext”,referringtothelinguisticunitsprecedingand/orfollowingaparticularlinguisticunitinatext.Theotheris“extra-linguisticcontext”or“contextofsituation”,referringtotherelevantfeaturesofthesituationinwhichatexthasmeaning.)Contextualfactors:★①Fieldofdiscourse(語場)：theinstitutionalsetting,privateorpublic,inwhichapieceoflanguageoccurs,embracingnotonlythesubjectmatterinhand(正在進行中的主要的事情),butthewholeactivityofthespeakerorparticipantinasetting,whichcorrespondstoHalliday’s“ideationalfunction”oflanguage.②Tenor(語旨)：Theparticipants,theireducation,socialstatus,therole-relationshipbetweentheaddresserandtheaddressee;thedegreeofintimacy;thedegreeofsocialdistance.(It’sconcernedwithwhoistakingpartintheexchangeofmeaningtherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthelistener,theirrelativestatus,theirattitude,andtheirrolerelations.)③Mode(語式)：themediumofcommunication——thegraphicsigns[visual]orsoundwaves[auditory]bymeansofwhichamessageisconveyedfromonepersontoanther;Channel;channellimitation;otherdetailedchoices,thefunctionsoflanguageintheparticularsituation.Practice4.Analyzethefollowingconversation(JennycomestoAlan’shouse.Sheisconductingasurveyforthegovernment.)Alan:Won’tyoucomein,Miss-er-.Jenny:Cartwright,JennyCartwright.Alan:I’mAlanMarlow.(AlanshowsJennyintothelivingroom.)Alan:Ohwon’tyoumakeyourselfcomfortable,Jenny?(Aftersomeminutesoftalk,whichisomittedhere)Jenny:Mr.Marlow…Alan:CallmeAlan.(TheMarlows,Episode11)ThecontextshowsclearlythatAlanandJennyaretotalstrangers.Theconven-tionaladdressformbetweenstrangersisTitle+Sur-name(Mr./MissSo-and-so).ButAlanaddressesthegirlbyherfirstnameandlateraskshertodothesame.Hisadoptionoffirst-namingisanexampleofthemanipulationoflanguage.Itisamovetowardsafriendlierrelationship,indicatingthatAlandoesnotwanttheirencountertobeformalanddistant,asitiscustomarybetweenstrangers.Incontrast,JennychoosestoremainformalanddistantbyaddressingAlanas“Mr.Marlow”.LinguisticItems6、Speechsounds:★(1)Stress:Stressreferstotheprominenceofsounds.Itistheresultofextraforceusedinpronouncingaparticularwordorsyllable.a)Toshowemphasis;b)Toshowsurprise,anger,doubt,horrororexcitement;c)Todistinguishmeaningofidenticalwordsorphrases.P23(2)Pause:Pausereferstothebriefinterruptionofthearticulatoryprocessbetweenconsecutivelinguisticunitssuchassounds,syllables,words,phrasesandsentences.a)voicedpauseorfilledpause;b)silentpauseFunction:P23(3)Pitch:Thisrelativeheightofspeechsoundsasperceivedbyalisteneriscalled“pitch”andtoindicatedifferentfeelingsorattitudes,suchasagreement,doubt,surprise,delight,scorn,abhorrence,orhatred.a)Thefallingpitch;b)Therisingpitch;c)Thefall-risepitch;d)Therise-fallpitch;e)Thelevelpitch;f)Thefall-plus-risepitch.(各用在什么情境下，有什么作用P24~25)(4)Tempo:Temporeferstothespeedofspeaking.Temporeflectedinmonosyllables:a)quickandclippedsyllables;b)looseanddrawledsyllables;c)slowandheldsyllables.Temporeflectedinsentences:a)thequick“allegro”;b)theslow“l(fā)endo”;c)theincreasing“accelerando”;d)thedecreasing“rallentando”.Function:Generallyspeaking,aquicktempoindicatesexcitement,surprise,agreement,happiness,indignation,whereasaslowtempousuallyindicatesconfusion,emphasis,disagreement,hesitation,sadness,tiredness,lowspiritordisappointment,etc.7、GraphologicalItems——thestudyofwritingsystemofalanguageGraphologicallevel——theexpressionorrealizationoflanguageinitswritingsystemPunctuation(thedash破折號,thecolon冒號,theexclamationmark感嘆號)；各自用處效果CapitalizationItalics斜體Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphingreferstothewayinwhichatextisdividedintoparagraphs.Itisadevicetorevealtherelationalstructureinatext,theorganizationofthecontent.各自用處效果8、LexicalItems(1)GeneralorSpecific(2)Anglo-SaxonorLatinate(3)OtherLexicalItems9、Syntactic/GrammaticalItems(1)ClauseTypesClause:Aclauseformsasentenceorpartofasentence.Itisagroupofwordswhichformagrammaticalunitandwhichcontainsasubjectandafiniteverb,oftenfunctioningasanoun,adjectiveoradverb.1)Intermsoftheclauseconstituents,thereare5basictypes:2)Intermsofthestructureoftheverbphrases(ifany)inaclause:①Finiteclausesareclausesinwhichthefirstortheonlyverbphraseisafiniteform.E.g.Hefinishedhisworkbeforeleavingtheclassroom.②Nonfiniteclauses（非限定從句）areclauseswhoseverbphraseisnon-finite,e.g.an–ingparticiple.Hefinishedhisworkbeforeleavingtheclassroom.③Verblessclauses（無動詞分句）areclauseswhichcontainnoverbelement,e.g.:Hundredsofpeoplewerekilledinthefire,manyofthemchildren.3)Intermsoffunctionsinasentence:①Independentclause,notsubordinatetoanotherclause.E.g.Iamateacher.②Subordinateclauseisaclausewhichformspartofanotherclauseasitselement,orasconstituentofaphrasewithinaclause.nominalclause（名詞性從句）e.g.Whathesaidistrue.relativeclause（關系從句）functioningaspostmodifiersofanounphrase.E.g.Peoplewhosmokeannoyparativeclause,than,asadverbialclausesdenotingtime,place,reason,etc.(2)SentenceTypesSentence:Asentenceis,grammatically,thelargestunitofgrammaticalorganizationwithinwhichpartsofspeechandgrammaticalclassesaretofunction.Intermsofcomplexityorthenumberofconstituentclauses:①Simplesentenceconsistsofasingleindependentclause.②Multiplesentenceconsistsofmorethanoneclause.a)Compoundsentence（復合句）consistsoftwoormoreindependentclauseswithnodependentclauses.E.g.:Thestormisover,butthegroundisstillwet.b)Complexsentence（復雜句）consistsofoneindependentclauseandoneormoredependentclause,e.g.:Althoughthestormisover,thegroundisstillwet.c)Compound-complexsentenceconsistsoftwoormoreindependentclauses,onebeingcompound,andatleastonecomplexdependentclause,e.g.:Althoughthestormisover,thegroundisstillwet,andwecannotgooutforawalk.Intermsofgrammaticality:①Majorsentenceisasentence(simpleormultiple)whichconformstotheregularpatternsofclausestructures.(formalinstyle)②Minorsentencedoesnotconformtotheregularclausepatterns,e.g.:Oh,ifIwereyou!Allaboard!Intermsoffunction:①Declarativesentence（陳述句）②Interrogativesentence（疑問句）GeneralquestionSpecialquestionAlternativequestionDisjunctivequestion（反義疑問句）③Imperativesentence（命令、祈使、要求）④Exclamatorysentence（感嘆句）Intermsofsentencelength:①Shortsentence（casual,easy,informal,emphatic,eye-catching,tothepoint,effective,expressaconcept）②longsentenceIntermsofthebeautyofstructureoremphasis:Periodicsentence（圓周句）isasentencewhichsuspendsthecompletionofthemainthoughtuntil(near)theend,e.g.:EverytimeaCooperpersonisinperil,andabsolutesilenceisworthfourdollarsaminute,heissuretosteponadrytwig.②Loosesentence（松散句）incontrastcompletesthemainthoughtwellbeforetheend.Balancedsentencecontainstwodistincthalvesorparts,eachofaboutthesamelengthandimportance,e.g.:InPlato’sopinionmanwasmadeforphilosophy;inBacon’sopinionphilosophywasmadeforman.(beautifulinform,impressiveinmeaning;formalwritings,expositoryandargumentativeprose,publicspeech)10、British/AmericanEnglishBritishEnglish范圍：EFL（mothertongue）:Britain;TheIrishRepublic；Australia；NewZealand；SouthAfrica；TheWestESL：Singapore；MalaysiaThreeperiods:OldEnglish,MiddleEnglish,ModernEnglishAmericanEnglish范圍：EFL：（mothertongue）TheUnitedStatesofAmerica;CanadaESL：Mexico；ThePhilippines;Samoa（薩摩亞）HistoryofAmE:DifferencesbetweenBrE&AmE:每項具體例子要看InVocabularyInGrammar①Theuseofpresentperfect(BrE)orpasttense(AmE)②Theuseof“have”or“havegot”toindicatepossession③Theuseof“got”(BrE)or“gotten”(AmE)④Theuseofdifferentprepositions⑤TheuseofdifferentexpressionsInSpellingInPronunciation(RP=ReceivedPronunciation11、SpokenEnglish&WrittenEnglish（口頭語和書面語）（1）Medium:Mediumreferstographicsigns(visualmedium)orsoundwaves(auditorymedium)bymeansofwhichamessageisconveyedfromoneperson(addresser)toanother(addressee).MartinJoos’classification（2）區(qū)別：①Atthelexicallevel②Atthesyntactical/grammaticallevel③Atthephonological/graphologicallevel④Semantically補充：Strikingdifferences1)Hearer/Readerinvolvement.GenerallymostspeechesassumethepresenceofthehearerNon-verbalsignalslikefacialexpressionsofincomprehensionorboredom,feedbackinthewayoflaughter,applauseandevenbooing(feedbackfromaudienceatteningalectureandthelike).Awrittentextnormallypresumestheabsenceofthereader,anddirectfeedbackfromthereaderisnotpossible.2)LinguisticexplicitnessInspeech,theparticipantsrelyheavilyontheircommonbackgroundknowledgeandtheimmediatecontextformuchoftheirinformation.Theimmediatecontextcaneliminatetheambiguityordarkinformationcarriedbyimplicitlinguisticstructures,bringsomewordswithconcretereferents,andrecrysta-lizethedenotationsofsomeotherwiseabstractwords.Writing,generally,doesnotrelyontheimmediatecontextforunderstanding.Norcanthewriternormallyhopethathis/herreaderssharewithhim/hermuchofthepersonalbackgroundknowledgeneededfortheunderstandingofthewrittentext.Onthecontraryhe/shemustgivegreatexplicitnesstowhateverhe/sheistryingtosayonpaper.3)PreparednessWritingisonthewholemore‘careful’thanspeaking.Permanentrecord,aclearideaaboutthesubjectmatterandlogicalarrangementofthought,compactandself-contained.Speech,esp.conversation,isoftenspontaneous.Randomshiftoftopic,agenerallackofconsciousplanning,featuresofhesitation,slipsofthetongue,overlappingorsimultaneousspeech.StylisticdifferencesSpokentextscontrastwithwrittentextsintermsofgrammatical,lexicalandphonological/graphologicalfeatures.Gregory(19107):1)DistinctionsamongstspeechSpeechcanbespontaneous(suchascasualconversation)ornon-spontaneous(aswhatactorsandteachersaredoing).Withinspontaneousspeech,thereisconversing(withtheparticipationofothers)versusmonologuing(withnointerruptionfromothers).Thelatterkindofsustainedspontaneousspeechisfoundinclassroomteaching,TVinterviewing,radiocommenting,andthetalkingbetweenscholars.Non-spontaneousspeechcanbesub-categorizedasreciting(suchasstorytelling,poemrecitationandsinging)andasthespeakingofwhatiswritten.Inliteratecultures,mostnon-spontaneousspeechisthespeakingofwhathasbeenwritten.2)DistinctionsamongstwritingThetextthathasbeenwrittenmaybewrittentobespokenasifnotwritten,orwrittentobespoken,orevenwrittennotnecessarilytobespoken.a)Textswrittentobespokenasifnotwrittensuchasthelinesinadrama,soundlikerealspeech.Buttheyarespeechesthathavebeenplannedandprepared,whereasordinaryspeechisspontaneous;andtheirsituationsaremorecompactandself-containedthanthoseofconversingandmonologuing.b)Textswrittentobespokenwithnoefforttoconcealtheirwrittenoriginsuchasscriptsforsermons,speeches,lectures,newsbulletinsandcommentaries,canbereallythereadingofanarticleoressaybutthehearerisnotinthesamesituationasthereaderwherehe/shecanturnbackapagetocheckhis/herunderstanding.Hencetheirrepeatingofthemainpointsinaslightlydifferentwayandtheirmanipulationofprosodicandparalinguisticfeaturesforthespokenmode.c)Textswrittennotnecessarilytobespokenwithnorelationtothespokenmodesuchasatelephonebookoradictionarymaybedescribedaswrittentoberead.d)Textswrittennotnecessarilytobespokenbutwitharelationshipwiththespokenmodesuchasdialogueinanovel,maybecategorizedaswrittentobereadasspeech(asifheard);andtheinteriormonologuerelatedtosuchtextsmaybecategorizedaswrittentobereadasifthought(asifoverheard).（3）①ElectronicEnglish(E-Discourse):ElectronicEnglishisageneralterm,anditisusedtoheretorefertothecomputer-mediatedEnglish,whichcanalsobelabeledbyothernamesthroughslightdifferencesexist.②NatureofElectronicEnglish:E-Englishisinteractive,electronic,communicativeinnature,withthetextpresentedonthescreen.③Stylisticfeatures:a)Lexicallyb)Syntactically12、Formal&Informal（會辨別formality）★(1)Formality:Formalityreferstothewayinwhichthestyleortoneoflanguagewillvaryinappropriatenessaccordingtothesocialcontext:theoccasion,thenumberofhearers,andtherole-relationship——therelationshipbetweentherolesadoptedbytheaddresserandtheaddresseeinagivensituation.Formal——Commoncore——Formal補充：Session9FormalvsInformalLanguage9.3Functionaltenoranddegreesofformality1.Functionaltenortellsustheaddresser’sintentionofusingthelanguage.2.Certainfunctionaltenorscanhitanypointonthepersonaltenorformalitycontinuum.anexpositoryspeech:formal,withmanypassiveconstructionsandatechnicalvocabulary;or,informal,inanad-libmanner,withpersonalanecdotes,referencetotheaudience.aninsult:formal(formalstructureandvocabulary,calmordeliberatedelivery)orinformal.9.4MartinJoos’classification(MartinJoos,1967)Therangeofformality:5levels:frozen,formal,consultative,casual,andintimate.Thefrozenlevel:InJoos'analysis,thefrozenlevelisusedforwrittenlegaldocumentsorhighlysolemnspeechwhichconsistsofmemorizedsentencesthatmustberepeatedverbatim.Thesemightincludequotationsfromproverbsorritualexpressionswhicharepartofaformalceremony.Theformallevelisusedforpublicaddressessuchaslecturesorspeecheswheretheaudienceisnotknowntothespeakerpersonallyorwherepersonalacquaintanceisnotacknowledged.Thislevelrequiresmuchattentiontoform(withwell-plannedthematicstructureandphonological,lexicalandsyntacticalcoherence),andallowslittleornointeraction.Itistypicallymarkedwiththeuseofmayplaceofmight,can(in'MayIpresentMrSmith?').Thespeakerisusuallyconsideredtobeanauthorityand,therefore,hashigherstatusthanthehearersforthatparticularevent.Theconsultativelevelisusedatlessformalgatheringssuchascommitteemeetingswherestatusisstillfairlyclearlydesignated,butwhereparticipantsinteract.Thereisstillconsiderableattentiontoform(withratherclearpronunciation,accuratewordingandcompletesentences),andparticipantsmaynotknoweachotherwell.Itmaybenecessaryforspeakerstoelaborateandgiveasignificantamountofbackgroundmaterial.Incontrast,thecasuallevelisusedamongfriends,orpeerswhoknoweachotherwellenoughthatlittleelaborationisnecessary.Participantspayverylittleattentiontoform(shownbytheuseofslangandellipsisasin'Beenagoodthingif...')andconcentratetotallyoncontentandrelationship.Oneofthemarkersofthislevelistheuseof'Comeon'withtheimplication'Consideryourselfamongfriends'.ThefinallevelidentifiedbyJoosis'intimate',languageusedbetweenpeoplewhoseeeachotherdaily(familymembersforinstance)andsharethemajorityoftheirdailylifeexperiences.Asaresult,languageisunelaboratedandconversationmaybemeaninglesstooutsidersbecauseofitstelegraphicquality.Noattentionispaidtoform.第六種：TheGobbledygook冗長的廢話，官話e.g.1)Mybelovedparenthasjustpassedtohisheavenlyreward.2)Mydearfatherhasjustexpired.3)Myfatherhasjustpassedaway.4)Mydadhasdied.5)Myoldmanjustkickedthebucket.byMartinJoosJoos'categoriespresentanefficientwayoflookingatdegreesofformality.Itisfairlyeasytodistinguishthefrozenstyleof(written)legaldocumentswiththeirLatinatedictionandimpersonalsyntax,fromtheintimatestyleof(spoken)interchangesbetweenclosefriends,withtheirslangandellipticalsyntax.Butitisnoteasytocategorizetheinterveningdegrees,orrelatethemtolinguisticfeatures.SomostlinguistsagreethatthesituationismorecomplexthanJoosimaginedandseetherangeasacontinuumfromthemostformaltothemostSituationandFormalityinformal/intimate,withaninfinitenumberofstoppingplacesinbetween.(2)PolitenessPolitenessreferstoa)howlanguagesexpressthesocialdistancebetweenspeakersandtheirdifferentrole-relationships;b)howface-work,thatis,theattempttoestablish,maintain,andsavefaceduringconversation,iscarriedoutinaspeechcommunity.(3)Impersonality（非人格性，非人稱性）Impersonality:Anydiscoursethatisdescribedasimpersonalismarkedbyadistinctlackofthepersonalandinformalmode.Languagemarkersindicatingdegreesofimpersonalityinclude:thegenericpronounone;thethirdpersonnounsinsteadofpersonalpronouns;thepassivevoice;theintroductoryitasasentencebeginner;abstractnounsornominalgroups.Accessibility（可讀性）Accessibility,synonymouswithacceptability,orreadability,referstowhetherapieceoflanguageiseasytounderstandbytheaddressee.Fogindex（RobertGunning）符合指數，可讀性程度★FogIndex=0.4（L+H）L=theaveragesentencelengthinapassageH=thepercentageofhard(inaccessible)wordsinthepassageWhatshouldbeknown:thetotalnumberofwords;thetotalnumberofsentences;thetotalnumberofhardwords(atleast3syllables,notcountinginflectionorcompounding).Smaller=easierAneasilyaccessibletext:about10orfewerAncasualconversation:about5Alegaldocument:morethan20Practice:書P6913、Women&Men/BlackEnglish/Taboo&EuphemismTaboo:Tabooisoftenusedtorefertoawordorexpressionwhichisavoidedbysomepeopleforreligious,political,social,sexual,orotherreasonsandisusuallyreplacedbyacorrespondingeuphemism.Euphemism:Aeuphemismisoftendefinedassubstitutinganinoffensiveorpleasantwordorexpressionforamoreoffensiveone.Euphemismcanevenmaketheharshrealityappearneutral,whichiswhytheyareoftenemployedbypoliticiansinordertotakethepeopleinandendearthemselvestothepublic.14、Conversation（定義，特征，各level特征分析）Conversationreferstotheactoraninstanceoftalkingtogether,forexample,afamiliartalkbetweenfriends;averbalexchangeofideas,etc.Commonfeatures:informalityinexplicitnessnormalnon-fluencylexicalbanalitysyntacticloosenessrandomnessofsubjectmatter15、Publicspeaking（定義，特征，構成要素）(1)Publicspeechesarespeechesdeliveredinpublicforaspecialpurpose,suchasopen-classlecturesorseminarsinauniversity,religiouspreachesinthechurch,speechesdeliveredatameetingorconference,theinauguraladdressofthepresidentelect,etc.(2)Generalfeatures:formalinstyle,clearandvividintone,persuasiveinpurpose(3)Types①TheinformativeThepersuasiveTheentertainingThestimulating(4)Waysofdelivery（效果，分別的優(yōu)缺點）ReadingfromamanuscriptRecitingfrommemoryImpromptuspeakingExtemporaneousspeaking（outline）三四兩種的區(qū)別16、NewsReporting★(1)Newsreportingisthereportingofanythingtimelywhichhasimportance,useorinteresttoaconsiderablenumberofpersonsinapublicationaudience.(2)Classification①Place：National&Provincial②Contents:QualityPapers（嚴肅性）&PopularPapers（大眾性）③Time:Morning,noon,evening,Sunday④Nature:Hardnews（純新聞），Softnews(3)Field:politics,economy,military,culture,technology,etc.Tenor:thejournalistsandmassesdifferentpurposesMode:radio,broadcast,TVbroadcast,newspaper,andmagazine.(4)Definitionofnews(5)Newsvalue:timeliness,freshness（時新性）；importance,prominence（顯著性）；locality,proximity（接近性）；oddity,weirdness,novelty（新奇性）；interest(6)TheMake-upofNewsReport★書上例子及課后習題一定要看3parts:theheadline,thelead,thebody1>TheHeadline①Definition:thetextinlargeboldtypeatthetopofthenewspaperarticle,indicatingthenatureofthearticlebelowit.②Function:toadvertiseorsellthenewstosummarizethestorytobeautifythepageMainfeatures:TheomissionofarticlesandthelinkverbFrequentuseofabbreviationsPresenttenseisoftenusedShortpowerfulwordsareoftenemployedTheuseofpre-modificationFrequentuseoffiguresofspeechLexicalfeatures:acronymandshortenedwords（縮略詞和截短詞）colloquialandconversationalwords（口語化詞）midgetwords（小詞）theuseofpre-modificationFormatsofHeadlinesThebanner/streamer通欄標題Theflushlefthead左對齊式（垂直式）標題Thedroppedline/indentedheadThecenteredheadThecross-line/keylinehead單行標題Thestephead齊頭標題ThepyramidheadTheinvertedpyramidheadThejumphead2>TheLead導語Definition:Theleadisthefirstorthefirstfewparagraphsofthenewsreport,consistingofthenewest,mostimportant,orthemostattractivefacts.Who,what,when,where,,whyFeatures:succinct,informativeandintriguingForms:Thecontrastlead對比式導語Thequestionlead提問式導語Thequotationlead引語式導語Theblindlead盲式導語Thedescriptivelead描寫性導語Themainfactlead主要事實導語Theanecdotallead軼事導語Thepersonallead3>Thebody①Thebodyisthemainpartofthenewsreport.②Writingmethod:TheinvertedpyramidmethodThechronologicalmethodThehighlightmethod(7)Stylisticfeatures17、Advertising書上例子要看①Advertisingisthenon-personalcommunicationofinformation,usuallypaidforandusuallypersuasiveinnatureabouttheproducts,servicesorideasbyidentifiedsponsorsthroughvariousmedia.②Function:InformationgivingfunctionDemand-creatingfunctionDistributionstimulatingfunctionNewcustomerintroducingfunctionGet-actionfunctionGood-willestablishingfunction③Classification:Bymedium,newspaperads,magazineads,TVads,radioads,directmailads,outdoorads,humanbodyads,Internetads,etc.Byaudience,consumerads,businessads(commercialads);serviceads,specifiedads,charityads,etc.Bywritingmethods,hard-sellads(intellect,fact,reason,tellingadvantages,serious,factual,accurate,objective)andsoft-sellads(emotion,figuresofspeech)ElementsofadsHeadline,theillustrations,thebodycopy,theslogan,thetrade-mark,andthestandingdetails(supplementaryitems).Writingmethodsofthebody-copyThestraight-linecopy(