2024年《英語詞匯學》知識點歸納

EnglishLexicology(英語詞匯學)Lexicology（詞匯學）:isabranchoflinguistics,inquiringintotheoriginsandmeaningsofwords.TheNatureandScopeofEnglishlexicology：EnglishlexicologyaimsatinvestigatingandstudyingthemorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandwordequivalents,theirsemanticstructures,relations,historicaldevelopment,formationandusages.ThesubjectsthatEnglishLexicologycorrelatedwithandextentto：EnglishLexicologyiscorrelatedwithsuchlinguisticdisciplinesasmorphology(形態(tài)學),semantics(語義學),etymology(詞源學),stylistics（文體論）andlexicography(詞典學)ThereasonforastudenttostudyEnglishlexicology：Accordingtothetextbook,EnglishLexicologywilldefinitelybebeneficialforstudentsofEnglish.AgoodknowledgeofmorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandrulesofword-formationwillhelplearnersdeveloptheirpersonalvocabularyandconsciouslyincreasetheirwordpower.Theinformationofthehistoricaldevelopmentandtheprinciplesofclassificationwillgivethemadeeperunderstandingofword-meaningandenablethemtoorganize,classifyandstorewordsmoreeffectively.Theunderstandingandtheirsenserelationswillgraduallyraisetheirawarenessofmeaningandusage,andenablethemusewordsmoreaccuratelyandappropriately.Aworkingknowledgeofdictionarieswillimprovetheirskillsofusingreferencebooksandraisetheirproblem-solvingabilityandefficiencyofindividualstudy.Chapter1--BasicconceptsofwordsandvocabularyWord（詞的定義）:Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.(1)aminimalfreeformofalanguage(2)asoundunity(3)aunitofmeaning(4)aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentenceSoundandmeaning（聲音與意義）:almostarbitrary,“nologicalrelationshipbetweenthesoundwhichstandsforathingoranideaandtheactualthingandideaitself”Soundandform（讀音和形式）:不統一的四個原因（1）theEnglishalphabetwasadoptedfromtheRomans,whichdoesnothaveaseparatelettertorepresenteachother（2）thepronunciationhaschangedmorerapidlythanspellingovertheyears（3）someofthedifferencewerecreatesbytheearlyscribes（4）theborrowingsisanimportantchannelofenrichingtheEnglishvocabularyVocabulary（詞匯）:allthewordsinalanguagemakeupitsvocabularyClassificationofEnglishWords：Byusefrequency:basicwordstock&nonbasicvocabularyBynotion:contentwords&functionalwordsByorigin:nativewords&borrowedwordsThebasicwordstock（基本詞匯）:isthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage.ThoughitconstituteasmallpercentageoftheEV,itisthemostimportantpartofvocabulary.TheFundamentalFeaturesoftheBasicWordStock(基本詞匯的特性):1)All-Nationalcharacter（全民通用性mostimportant）2)Stability（相對穩(wěn)定性）3)Productivity（多產性）4)Polysemy（多義性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）沒有上述特性的words:(1)Terminology(術語)(2)Jargon（行話）(3)slang（俚語）(4)Argot（暗語）（5）Dialectalwords(方言)(6)Archaisms（古語）(7)Neologisms（新詞語）:Neologismsmeansnewly-createdwordsorexpressions,orwordsthathavetakenonnewmeanings.(email)Contentwords/notionalwords實詞(cloud,runwalk,never,five,frequently)andfunctionalwords/emptywords虛詞(on,of,and,be,but)NativeWordsandBorrowedWordsNativewords（本族語詞）:knownasAnglo-Saxonwords(50,000-60,000),arewordsbroughttoBritaininthe5thcenturybytheGermanictribes.(mainstreamofthebasicword-stocks).Twootherfeatures:(1)neutralinstyle(2)frequentinuseBorrowedwords/Loanwords（外來語詞）:wordstakenoverfromforeignlanguages.(80%ofmodernEV)4Typesofloanwords:1)denizens(同化詞):(shirtfromskyrta(ON))2)aliens（非同化詞/外來詞）:areborrowedwordswhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspelling(kowtow(CH)磕頭)3)translationloans(譯借詞):按其他語言方式構成英語longtimenosee(fromChina)4)semanticloans（借義詞）：theyarenotborrowedwithreferencetotheform,buttheirmeaningsareborrowedChapter2thedevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabularyTheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamily(印歐語系)TheEightGroupsinIndo-EuropeanFamilyofLanguages（8大印歐語群）TheEasternset:（1）TheBalto-slavicGroup（波羅的-斯拉夫語族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czechetc.（2）TheIndo-IranianGroup（印度-伊朗語族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persianetc.(3)TheArmenianGroup（亞美尼亞語族）：Armenian.(4)TheAlbanianGroup（阿爾巴尼亞語族）：Albanian.TheWesternset:(5)TheHellenicGroup（古希臘語族）：Greek.(6)TheItalianGroup（意大利語族）：Latin,Romancelanguages(French,Italian,Spanish,portuguese,Romanian)etc.(7)TheCelticGroup（凱爾特語族）：Irish,Welsh,Bretonetc.(8)TheGermanicGroup（曰耳曼語族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian,Swedish,Danish,Icelandic)etc.TheThreeStagesofDevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary:1OldEnglish(450-1100)(vocabulary50,000to60,000):wasIhighinflectedlanguage.2MiddleEnglish(1150-1500):retainesmuchfewerinflections3ModernEnglish(1500-uptonow):infactmorethan25%ofmodernEwordscomealmostdirectlyfromclassicallanguages.InModernE,wordsendingsweremostlylostwithjustafewexpections.Englishhasevolvedfromasyntheticlanguage(OldEnglish)tothepresentanalyticlanguage.ModesofVocabularyDevelopment(詞匯的發(fā)展模式):1)creation發(fā)明新詞：theformationofnewwordsbyusingtheexistingmaterials,namelytoots,affixesandotherelements.(最重要方式)2)semanticchange舊詞新義:doesnotincreasethenumberofwordformsbutcreatemanymorenewuseagesofthewords.3)borrowing借用外來詞:constitutemerely6to7percentofallnewwordsRevivingwordsorobsoletewordsalsocontributestothegrowthofEnglishvocabularythoughquiteinsignificant.Chapter3WordFormationIMorpheme(詞素):thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwordsAllomorph(詞素變體):isadifferentvariantformofamorpheme，differinphonologicalandspellingform,butatthesameinfunctionandmeaningTypeofMorpheme(詞素的分類)（1）FreeMorphemes（自由詞素）:havecompletemeaninginthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself.(independent).（2）BoundMorpheme(粘著語素):Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitself.BoundMorphemeincludestwotypes:(1)boundroot(粘附詞根)(2)Affix(詞綴)Affixescanbeputintotwogroups:1)Inflectionalaffixes(屈折詞綴):affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.2)Derivationalaffixes(派生詞綴):A)prefix:Aprefixcomesbeforewords.B)suffix:Anadjectivesuffix（形容詞後綴）thatisaddedtothestem,whateverclassisbelongsto,theresultwillbeanadjective.FreeMorpheme=freeroot（自由詞根）Morpheme(詞素)BoundrootprefixboundderivationalaffixsuffixinflectionalRootandstem（詞根和詞干）Thedifferencesbetweenrootandstem:Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Astemisthesurpluspartafterthecuttingofinflectionalmorphemeinawordwithinflectionalmorphemes,canbefurtheranalyzed,itsometimescouldbearoot.Chapter4Word-FormationII(構詞法)1.Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：theformationofwordsbyaddingword-formaingorderivationalaffixestostem.（1）Prefixation(前綴法)：It'stheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaprefixestostems.1)Negativeprefixes(否認前綴):un-,non-,in-,dis,a-,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(notobey)2)Reversativeprefixes（逆反前綴）:un-,de-，dis-etc.unwrap(open)3)Pejorativeprefixes:mis（貶義前綴）：mis-，mal-,pseudo-etc.misconduct(badbehaviour)4)Prefixesofdegreeorsize(程度前綴)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect.overweight5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude（傾向態(tài)度前綴）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locativeprefixes（方位前綴）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-,etc.extraordinary(morethanordinary)7)Prefixesoftimeandorder（時間和次序前綴）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-etc.monorail(onerail)8)Numberprefixes（數字前綴）:uni-，mono-,bi-，di-,tri-,multi-，poly-，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerningtwolanguages)9)Miscellaneousprefixes（混雜前綴）：auto-,neo-,pan-,vice-.vice-chairman(deputychairman)(2)Suffixation（後綴法）:It'stheformationofanewwordbyaddingsuffixestostems.1)nounsuffixes2)adjectivesuffixes3)Adverbsuffixes4)verbsuffixes2.Compounding復合法（alsocalledcomposition）Compounding:istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestemsCompoundsarewritteninthreeways:solid連寫(airmail)，hyphenated帶連字符(air-conditioning)andopen分開寫(airforce,airraid)Formationofcompounds（復合詞的形式）（1）nouncompounds：e.g.:air+plane=airplane,flower+pot=flowerpot（2）adjectivecompounds：e.g.acid+head=acid-head（3）verbcompounds：e.g.house+keep=housekeep3.Conversion轉類法Conversion:istheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.（功能轉換，又叫零派生.functionalshift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼綴法Blending:istheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.e.g:motor+hotel=motel,smoke+fog=smog,formula+translation=FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:istoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.e.g.planefromairplane,phonefromtelephone.四種形式：1).Frontclippings刪節(jié)前面(phonefromtelephone)2).Backclippings刪節(jié)背面(dormfromdormitory)3).Frontandbackclippings前後刪節(jié)(flufrominfluenza)4).Phraseclippings短語刪節(jié)(popfrompopularmusic)6.Acronymy首字母縮寫法Acronymy:istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms.（1）Initialism（首字母縮寫詞法）:initialismsarewordspronouncedletterbyletter.e.g.:BBC(forBritishBroadcastingcorporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronymsarewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword.E.g.:TEFL(teachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆構詞）Back-formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.It’sthemethodofcreatingwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixes.(greedfromgreedy)8.WordsFromProperName(專有名詞轉成法):Namesofpeople,places,book,andtradenames(e.g.:sirwattsiemens(人名)--watt（瓦特，電功率單位）Chapter5WordMeaningThemeaningsof“Meaning”(“意義”的意義)Reference(所指):Itistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheword.Itisthearbitraryandconventional.Itisakindofabstraction,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific.Concept（概念）:whichisbeyondlanguage,istheresultofhumancognition(認識),reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Sense（意義）:Itdenotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.‘Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.’Motivation(理據)：Itaccountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.1)Onomatopoeicmotivation（擬聲理據）:wordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning,forthesewordswerecreatesbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.Knowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaning.E.g.:bang,ping-pong,haha.2)Morphologicalmotivation（形態(tài)理據）:multi-morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanyarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombines.E.g.:airmail,miniskirt.例外：blackmarket,ect.3)Semanticmotivation（詞義理據）：referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.Itexplainstheconnectionbetweentheliteralsenseandfigurativesenseoftheword.E.g:thefootofthemountain(foot)4)Etymologicalmotivation（詞源理據）:thehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningoftheword.E.g:pen-featherTypesofmeaning(詞義的類別)1.GrammaticalMeaning（語法意義）:indicatesthegrammaticalconceptorrelationships(becomesimportantonlyinactualcontext)2.LexicalMeaning（詞匯意義）(Lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaningmakeuptheword-meaning)Lexicalmeaninghas2components內容:Conceptualmeaning(概念意義)andassociativemeaning(關聯意義)1）Conceptualmeaning(概念意義):alsoknownasdenotativemeaning(外延意義)isthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofword-meaning.2）Associativemeaning(關聯意義):isthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaning.[4types:Connotative（內涵意義）：theovertonesorassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaning,traditionallyknownasconnotations.(例如“母親”常常與“愛”“關懷”“溫柔”聯絡起來)Stylistic（文體意義）：manywordshavestylisticfeatures,whichmakethemappropriatefordifferentcontexts.Affective（感情意義）：indicatesthespeaker’sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.這種情感價值觀分兩類：褒義和貶義appreciative&pejorativeCollocative（搭配意義）：isthepartoftheword-meaningsuggestedbythewordsbeforeorafterthewordindiscussion.]Chapter6--Senserelationandsemanticfield（語義關系和語義場）Polysemy（多義關系）Twoapproachedtopolysemy（多義關系的兩種研究措施）:1.diachronicapproach(歷時措施)：fromthediachronicpointofview,polysemyisassumedtobetheresultofgrowthanddevelopmentofthesemanticstructureofoneandsameword.Firstmeaningistheprimarymeaning,thelatermeaningsarecalledderivedmeanings.2.synchronicapproach(共時措施):synchronically,polysemyisviewedasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinacertainhistoricalperiodoftime.基本意義是centralmeaning,次要意義是derivedmeaning.Twoprocessesofdevelopment（詞義的兩種發(fā)展類型）:radiation（輻射型）：isasemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecentreandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerayes.(e.g:face,neck)concatenation（連鎖型）:isthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovegraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntilthereisnotasignofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichthetermhadatthebeginning.(e.g:treacle)Inradiation,eachofthederivedmeaningisdirectlyconnectedtotheprimarymeaning.Inconcatenation,eachofthelatermeaningisrelatedonlytotheprecedingonelikechains.Thoughthelatestsensecanbetracedbacktotheoriginal,thereisnodirectconnectioninbetween.Theyarecloselyrelated,beingdifferentstagesofthedevelopmentleadingtopolysemy.Generally,radiationprecedesconcatenation.Inmanycases,thetwoprocessesworktogether,complementingeachother.Homonymy（同形同音異義關系）:wordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspelling.Typesofhomonyms(同音同形異義關系的類別)1）Perfecthomonyms（完全同音同形異義詞）：wordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.2)Homographs（同形異義詞）:wordsidenticalonlyinspelling,butdifferentinsoundandmeaning.(最多最常見)3）Homophones（同音異義詞）：wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning.Originsofhomonyms(同形同音異義詞的來源)1）changeinsoundandspelling：(eare-ear,lang-long,langian-long)2）borrowing(feria-fair,beallu-ball,baller-ball)3）Shortening(縮略):(ad-advertisement,)ThedifferentiationofHomonymsfromPolysemes（同音同形異義詞和多義詞的區(qū)別)：1)Thefundamentaldifference:Homonymyreferstodifferentwordswhichhappentosharethesameformandpolysemyaretheoneandsamewordwhichhasseveraldistinguishablemeanings.2)Oneimportantcriterionistoseetheiretymology(詞源)：Homonymysarefromdifferentsources.Polysemantisfromthesamesource.3)Thesecondprincipleconsiderationissemanticrelatedness(語義關聯):Thevariousmeaningsofpolysemantarecorrelatedandconnectedtoonecentralmeaning.Meaningsofdifferenthomonymyshavenothingtodowithoneanother.Indictionaries,apolysemanthasitsmeaningalllistedunderoneheadwordwhereashomonymsarelistedasseparateentries.Rhetoricfeaturesofhomonyms(同形同音異義詞的修辭特色)：Ashomonymsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,particularlyhomophones,theyareoftenemployedtocreatepunsfordesiredeffectof,say,humor,sarcasmorridicule.Synonymy(同義關系):oneoftwoormorewordsintheEnglishlanguagewhichhavethesameorverynearlythesameessentialmeaning.TypesofSynonymy(同義詞的類別):Absolutesynonyms（完全同義詞）：alsoknownascompletesynonymsarewordswhichareidenticalinmeaninginallaspects,i.e.bothingrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaning,includingconceptualandassociativemeanings.[Absolutesynonymsarerestrictedtohighlyspecializedvocabularyinlexicology.]relativesynonyms（相對同義詞）:alsocallednear-synonymsaresimilarornearlythesameindenotation,butembracedifferentshadesofmeaningordifferentdegreesofagivenquality.(e.g:change/alter/vary,stagger/reel/totter,strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sourcesofsynonyms(同義詞的來源):1)Borrowing（借詞）：最重要的來源(room-chamber,foe-enemy,help-aid,leave-depart,wise-sage,buy-purchase)2)DialectsandregionalEnglish（方言和地區(qū)英語）3)Figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwords（單詞的修飾和委婉使用方法）:occupation/profession-walkoflife,dreamer--star-gazer,drunk-elevated,lie-distortoffact.4)Coincidencewithidiomaticexpressions（與習慣體現一致）:win-gaintheupperhand,decide-makeupone’smind,finish-getthrough,hesitate-beintwominds,help-lendoneahand.DiscriminationofSynonymsdifferenceindenotation外延不一樣.Synonymsmaydifferintherangeandintensityofmeaning.(rich-wealthy,work-toil,want-wish-desire)differenceinconnotation內涵不一樣.Byconnotationwemeanthestylisticandemotivecolouringofwords.Somewordssharethesamedenotationbutdifferintheirstylisticappropriateness.(借詞：answer-respond,storm-tempest,wood-forest,handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar,homely-domestic,fleshy-carnal.中性詞：policeman-constable-bobby-cop,ask-beg-request.古語詞、詩歌：ire/anger,bliss-happiness,forlorn-distresses,dire-dreadful,list-listen,enow-enough,save-expect,mere-lake)differenceinapplication.Manywordsaresynonymousinmeaningbutdifferenceinusageinsimpleterms.Theyformdifferentcollocationsandfitintodifferencesentencepatterns.(allowsb.todosth.-letsb.dosth./answertheletter-replytotheletter)Antonymy(反義關系):itisconcernedwithsemanticopposition.Antonymscanbedefinedaswordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.TypesofAntonyms:1)contradictoryterms(矛盾反義詞):theseantonymstrulyrepresentoppositenessofmeaning.特點：①Theassertionofoneisthedenialoftheother.②Suchantonymsarenon-gradable.Theycannotbeusedincomparativedegreesanddonotallowadverbsofintensitylike“very”toqualifythem.(e.g:single/married)2)contraryterms（對立反義詞）:antonymsofthistypearebestviewedintermsofascalerunningbetweentwopolesorextremes.(e.g:old/young,rich/young,big/small)Thetwooppositesaregradableandoneexistsincomparisonwiththeother.3)relativeterms（關系反義詞）：thistypeconsistsofrelationalopposites.（parent/child,husband/wife,employee/employer,sell/buy,receive-give）Someofthecharacteristicsofantonyms(反義關系的特點):1)antonymsareclassifiedonthebasisofsemanticopposition(語義對立)2)awordwhichhasmorethanonemeaningcanhavemorethanoneantonym3)antonymsdifferinsemanticinclusion（語義內涵）4)contrarytermsaregradableantonyms，differingindegreeofintensity,soeachhasitsowncorrespondingopposite.(hot/warm:hot-cold/warm-cool)Theuseofantonyms（反義詞的使用）1）Antonymsarehelpfulandvaluableindefiningthemeaningofwords.2)Toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthoughtforthesakeofcontrast.(e.g:nowornever,rainorshine,friendorfoe敵友，wealandwoe哀樂)3）Toformantithesis(對比法)toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideatogether.(proverbsandsayings:easycome,easygo./morehaste,lessspeed.)Hyponymy(上下義關系):Hyponymydealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Themeaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralword.Forexample,acatishyponymofanimalSuperordinateandSubordinate(上義詞和下義詞)：usesubordinateswhichareconcreteandprecise,presentingavividverbalpicturebeforethereader.Superordinateswhichconveyonlyageneralandvagueidea.SemanticField(語義場)Viewingthetotalmeaninginthiswayisthebasisoffieldtheory.e.g.(apple,pear,peach,date,mango,orange,lemon,etc.makeupthesemanticfieldof‘fruits’)Thesemanticfieldofthesameconceptmaynothavethesamemembersindifferentlanguage.e.g.(auntinEnglish,maymeans“父親的姐姐，媽媽的姐姐，父親哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter7ChangesinWordMeaning詞義的演變Vocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinformandcontent.Comparativelythecontentisevenmoreunstablethantheform.TypesofChanges(詞義變化的種類)1.Extension/generalization(詞義的擴大):isthenamegiventothewideningofmeaningwhichsomewordsundergo.Itisaprocessbywhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralized.(e.g:manuscript,fabulous,picture,mill,journal,bonfire,butcher,companion)2.Narrowing/specialization(詞義的縮小)：istheoppositeofwideningmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.Inotherwords,awordwhichusedtohaveamoregeneralsensebecomesrestrictedinitsapplicationandconveysaspecialmeaninginpresent-dayEnglish.(e.g:deer,corn,garage,liquor,meat,disease,poison,wife,accident,girl).[whenacommonwordisturnedintoapropernoun,themeaningisnarrowedaccordingly.]3.Elevation/amelioration(詞義的升華):referstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumble（粗陋的）beginningstopositionsofimportance.[nice,marshal,constable,angel,knight,earl,governor,fond,minister,chamberlain]4.Degradation/pejoration(詞義的降格):Aprocesswherebywordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometousedinderogatory（貶損的）sense.[boor,churl,wench,hussy,villain,silly,knave,lewd,criticize,lust]5.Transfer(詞義的轉移):Wordswhichwereusedtodesignate指明onethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemantictransfer.CausesofSemanticChange(詞義變化的原因)1.Extra-linguisticfactors(詞義演變的語言外部原因):1)Historicalreason(歷史原因)：Increasedscientificknowledgeanddiscovery,objects,institutions,ideaschangeinthecourseoftime.E.g:pen,car,computer.2)Classreason(階級原因)：Theattitudeofclasseshavealsomadeinroadsintolexicalmeaninginthecaseofelevationordegradation.3)Psychologicalreason(心理原因)：theassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwordsareoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.Suchslow,humbleanddespisedoccupationstakemoreappealingnamesisallduetopsychologicalreasons.2.Linguisticfactors（語言內部原因）：thechangeofmeaningmaybecausedbyinternalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem.1)shorting縮略:gold-goldmedal,gas-coalgas,bulb-lightbulb,private-privatesoldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy類推:Chapter8MeaningandContext詞義和語境Contextinitstraditionalsensereferstothelexicalitemsthatprecedeorfollowagivenword.Modernlinguistshavebroadeneditsscopetoincludebothlinguisticandextra-linguisticcontexts.Twotypesofcontext（語境的種類）1.Extra-linguisticcontext/Non-linguisticsituation（非語言語境）：Inabroadsense,contextincludesthephysicalsituationaswell,whichembracesthepeople,time,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground.(lookout,weekend,landlord)2.Linguisticcontext/grammaticalcontext(語言語境)：Inanarrowsense,itreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappears.Itmaycoveraparagraph,awholechapterandeventheentirebook.分為兩類：1)Lexicalcontext（詞匯語境）：Itreferstothewordthatoccurstogetherwiththewordinquestion.(e.g:paper,do)2)Grammaticalcontext（語法語境）：Itrefersthesituationwhenthemeaningofawordmaybeinfluencedbythestructureinwhichitoccurs.(e.g:become)Theroleofcontext(語境的作用)1.Eliminationofambiguity(消除歧義)1）Ambiguityduetopolysemyorhomonymy.2）Grammaticalstructurecanalsoleadtoambiguity怎樣消除歧義？——①extendtheoriginalsentence②alterthecontextalittle2.Indicationofreferents(限定所指)怎樣限定所指？——①withclearcontext②withadequateverbalcontext3.Provisionofcluesforinferringword-meaning(提供線索以猜測詞義)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下義關系）7)relevantdetails8)wordstructureChapter9EnglishIdioms英語習語Idioms（習語的定義）:areexpressionsthatarenotreadilyunderstandablefromtheirliteralmeaningofindividualelements.Inabroadsense,idiommayincludecolloquialisms（俗語）,Catchphrases（口號）,slangexpressions（俚語）,proverbs（諺語）,etc.TheyformanimportantpartoftheEnglishvocabulary.CharacteristicsofIdioms（英語習語的特點）1.Semanticunity（語意的整體性）：wordsintheidiomtheyhavelosttheirindividualidentity.Theirmeaningsarenotoftenrecognizableinthemeaningofthewholeidiom.Thesemanticunityofidiomsisalsoreflectedintheillogicalrelationshipbetweentheliteralmeaningofeachoftheidiom.2.Structuralstability(構造的穩(wěn)定性):thestructureofanidiomistoalargeextentunchangeable.1)theconstituentsofidiomscannotbereplaced2)thewordordercannotbeinvertedorchanged3)theconstituentsofidiomscannotbedeletedoraddedto,notevenanarticle.4)manyidiomsaregrammaticallyunchangeableThefixityofidiomdependsontheidiomaticity.習語性體現習慣ClassificationofIdioms（英語習語的分類）1.idiomsnominalinnature名詞性習語(whiteelephant累贅物)2.idiomsadjectivalinnature形容詞性習語（aspoorasachurchmouse）3.idiomsverbalinnature動詞性習語（lookinto）4.idiomsadverbialinnature副詞性習語（toothandnail拼命）5.sentenceidioms句式習語（neverdothingsbyhalves）Useofidioms（習語的使用）1.Stylisticfeatures（文體色彩）：colloquialisms（俗語）slang（俚語）literaryexpressions（書面體現）Thesameidiommayshowstylisticdifferenceswhenitisassigned（指派）differentmeanings.2.Rhetoricalfeatures(修辭色彩)1)phoneticmanipulation（語音處理）：（1）alliteration頭韻法（2）rhyme尾韻法2）lexicalmanipulation（詞法處理）（1）reiteration（duplicationofsynonyms）同義詞并舉[screamandshout]（2）repetition反復[outandout]（3）juxtaposition(ofantonyms)反義詞并置[hereandthere]3.figuresofspeech（修辭格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy換喻/以名詞代動作：livebyone’spen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整體：earnone’sbread（5）Personification擬人法（6）Euphemism委婉語：kickthebucket(die)（7）hyperbole夸張：aworldoftroubleVariationsofidioms(習語的變異形式)：1.addition增長2.deletion刪除3.replacement替代4.position-shifting位置轉移5.dismembering分解Ch