大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)閱讀理解的篇章段落組織模式

大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)閱讀理解的篇章段落組織模式林明金尋找文章或段落的主題是閱讀理解中重要的一環(huán)節(jié)，也是四級(jí)閱讀理解考查的一個(gè)要點(diǎn)。但文章或段落的（supportingsentences/details）所提供的事實(shí)、實(shí)例或論據(jù)才使文章或段落的主題得到充實(shí)和豐富。作者一般會(huì)采用一定的模式來(lái)組織輔助性的細(xì)節(jié)內(nèi)容，故把握好作者對(duì)細(xì)節(jié)內(nèi)容的組織模式對(duì)所閱讀的內(nèi)容的理解和記憶極為有益。下面介紹幾種基本的篇章段落組織模式：（一）列舉法——AdditionorListing（二）過(guò)程/程序法——Process（三）類(lèi)別法——Classification（四）舉例法——Example（五）因果法——CauseandEffect.（六）時(shí)間順序法——TimeOrder.（七）比較/對(duì)比法——Comparisonand/Contrast.（八）綜合法——ACombinationoftheAbove（一）列舉法：指對(duì)文章或段落的主題或某一觀點(diǎn)所提供的細(xì)節(jié)，作者按照自己喜好的順序加以排列或羅列。列舉法是一種最常見(jiàn)和最簡(jiǎn)單的一種細(xì)節(jié)組織模式。例如：[主題句]Waterisessentialforgoodhealth.Itisnecessaryforeveryprocessofthebodylikedigestionandabsorptionoffood.Inaddition,waterhelpscontrolthetemperatureofthebody.Itkeepsthetemperatureat37℃.Wateralsocleansthetissues.此例是一個(gè)典型的列舉模式：作者用了三個(gè)細(xì)節(jié)來(lái)說(shuō)明本段的主題。作者還在此采用了該模式常見(jiàn)的信號(hào)詞（inaddition,also）。列舉法一些常用的信號(hào)詞還有：and,too,plus,again,besides,moreover,furthermore,first,second，next,inthesameway,similarly,etc.列舉法在四級(jí)閱讀測(cè)試中也很常見(jiàn)，例如（2000年6月）[主題句]Socialsupportcushionsstressinanumberofways.First,friends,relatives,andco-workersmayletusknowthattheyvalueus.Ourself-respectisstrengthenedwhenwefeelacceptedbyothersdespiteourfaultsanddifficulties.Second,otherpeopleoftenprovideuswithinformationalsupport.Theyhelpustodefineandunderstandourproblemsandfindsolutionstothem.Third,wetypicallyfindsocialcompanionshipsupportive.Engaginginleisure-timeactivitieswithothershelpsustomeetoursocialneedswhileatthesametimedistracting(轉(zhuǎn)移...注意力)usfromourworriesandtroubles.Finally,otherpeoplemaygiveusinstrumentalsupportfinancialaid,materialresources,andneededservices--thatreducesstressbyhelpingusresolveandcopewithourproblems.在主題句之后，作者列舉了四個(gè)方面的細(xì)節(jié)來(lái)論證該主題句。（二）過(guò)程/程序法：作者用做事情的一系列步驟的順序來(lái)組織細(xì)節(jié)，用來(lái)說(shuō)明做某事件的模式，即為過(guò)程法。舉例如下：[主題句]Changingatireisamatteroffoursimplesteps.First,jackupthesideofthecarhighenoughtocleartheground.Second,carefullyloosenthenutsthatholdthetireandriminplacebyusinglugwrench.Next,removetheflattireandputthesparetireinplace.Nowyouarereadytoputthenutsbackonthewheelandtightenthemwell.此種組織模式在四級(jí)閱讀測(cè)試試題中相當(dāng)常見(jiàn)。例如：（2000年6月）Longafterthe1998WorldCupwaswon,disappointedfanswerestillcursingthedisputedrefereeing(裁判)decisionsthatdeniedvictorytotheirteam.Aresearcherwasappointed[中心主題]tostudytheperformanceofsometopreferees.Theresearcherorganizedanexperimentaltournament(錦標(biāo)賽)involvingfouryouthteams.Eachmatchlastedanhour,dividedintothreeperiodsof20minutesduringwhichdifferentrefereeswereincharge.Observersnoteddownthereferees'errors,ofwhichtherewere61overthetournament.Convertedtoastandardmatchof90minutes,eachrefereemadealmost23mistakes,aremarkablyhighnumber.Theresearcherthenstudiedthevideotapestoanalysethematchesindetail.Surprisingly,hefoundthaterrorsweremorelikelywhentherefereeswereclosetotheincident.Whentheofficialsgotitright,theywere,onaverage,17metersawayfromtheaction.Theaveragedistanceinthecaseoferrorswas12meters.Theresearchshowstheoptimum(最佳的)distanceisabout20meters.Therealsoseemedtobeanoptimumspeed.Correctdecisionscamewhentherefereesweremovingataspeedofabout2meterspersecond.Theaveragespeedforerrorswas4meterspersecond.IfFIFA,football'sinternationalrulingbody,wantstoimprovethestandardofrefereeingatthenextWorldCup,[結(jié)論]itshouldencouragerefereestokeeptheireyesontheactionfromadistance,ratherthanrushingtokeepupwiththeball,theresearcherargues.HealsosaysthatFIFA'sinsistencethatrefereesshouldretireatage45maybemisguided.Ifkeepingupwiththeactionisnotsoimportant,[結(jié)論]theirphysicalconditionislesscritical.這篇短文的細(xì)節(jié)部分的組織模式即為過(guò)程/程序法，作者用了三個(gè)步驟：①組織一場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)性的比賽；②記下裁判犯下的錯(cuò)誤；③對(duì)錄像帶進(jìn)行研究。以此來(lái)說(shuō)明主題“(how)tostudytheperformanceofsometopreferees.”并在文章的最后，給出了兩個(gè)結(jié)論。考生應(yīng)當(dāng)注意區(qū)分列舉法和過(guò)程/程序法，列舉法模式中的順序可以隨意調(diào)換，但過(guò)程/程序法中的順序不可以隨意改變。（三）類(lèi)別法：作者在首句或主題句中探討事物較大一級(jí)的類(lèi)別/種類(lèi)之后，用首句中大類(lèi)別屬下的小類(lèi)別對(duì)主題進(jìn)行一一說(shuō)明或支持的細(xì)節(jié)組織模式。常見(jiàn)典型的信號(hào)標(biāo)志：categories,kinds,classes,groups,elements,varieties,等。[主題句]Therearetwofactorsdetermineanindividual’sintelligence.Thefirstisthesortofbrainheisbornwith.Humanbrainsdifferconsiderably,somebeingmorecapablethanothers.Butnomatterhowgoodabrainhehastobeginwith,anindividualwillhavealoworderofintelligenceunlesshehasopportunitiestolearn.Sothesecondfactoriswhathappenstotheindividual-thesortofenvironmentinwhichheisreared.Ifanindividualishandicappedenvironmentally,itislikelythathisbrainwillfailtodevelopandhewillneverattaintheleverofintelligenceofwhichheiscapable.這篇短文所用的模式就是典型的類(lèi)別法：主題句先提到?jīng)Q定個(gè)人智力的因素有兩個(gè)。然后再分別對(duì)兩個(gè)因素進(jìn)行一一說(shuō)明。類(lèi)別法在四級(jí)閱讀試卷出現(xiàn)過(guò)，但并不常見(jiàn)，下面是一個(gè)例子（1999年6月）：

[主題句]Martineputsitdownto,amongotherthings,soapoperas(通俗電視連續(xù)劇)andinstallment(分期付款)plansintroducedinthe1970s.Bothplayedanimportant,althoughindirect,roleinloweringthebirthrate.Brazilisoneoftheworld'sbiggestproducersofsoapoperas.Globl,Brazil'smostpopulartelevisionnetwork,showsthreehoursofsoapssixnightsaweek,whilethreeothersshowatleastonehouranight.Mostsoapsarebasedonwealthycharacterslivingthehighlifeinbigcities."Althoughtheyhaveneverreallytriedtoworkinamessagetowardstheproblemsofreproduction,theydescribemiddleandupperclassvaluesnotmanychildren,differentattitudestowardssex,womenworking,"saysMartine."Theysent

thisimagetoallpartsofBrazilandmadepeopleconsciousofotherpatternsofbehaviorandothervalues,whichwereputintoaveryattractivepackage."Meanwhile,theinstallmentplanstriedtoencouragethepoortobecomeconsumers."Thisledtoanenormouschangeinconsumptionpatternsandconsumptionwasincompatible(不相容的)withunlimitedreproduction."saysMartine.作者在主題句中提出通俗電視連續(xù)劇和分期付款兩個(gè)因素之后，隨后在下文分別對(duì)它們展開(kāi)一一說(shuō)明。（四）舉例法：作者通過(guò)一系列例子或一個(gè)例子來(lái)說(shuō)明或支持主題或觀點(diǎn)。舉例法的特點(diǎn)是生動(dòng)、直觀、更具有說(shuō)服力，能將復(fù)雜的內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)單化，在四級(jí)閱讀測(cè)試中很常見(jiàn)。例如：（1999年1月）[中心主題]Theappealofadvertisingtobuyingmotivescanhavebothnegativeandpositiveeffects.Consumersmaybeconvincedtobuyaproductofpoorqualityorhighpricebecauseofanadvertisement.Forexample,someadvertisershaveappealedtopeople'sdesireforbetterfueleconomyfortheircarsbyadvertisingautomotiveproductsthatimprovegasolinemileage.Someoftheproductswork.Othersareworthlessandawasteofconsumers'money.

[主題/段首句]Sometimesadvertisingisintentionallymisleading.Afewyearsagoabrandofbreadwasofferedtodieters(節(jié)食者)withthemessagethattherewerefewercalories(熱量單位，大卡)ineveryslice.Itturnedoutthatthebreadwasnotdietetic(適合于節(jié)食的),butjustregularbread.Therewerefewercaloriesbecauseitwasslicedverythin,buttherewerethesamenumberofcaloriesineveryloaf.

[主題/段首句]Onthepositiveside,emotionalappealsmayrespondtoaconsumer'srealconcerns.Considerfireinsurance.Fireinsurancemaybesoldbyappealingtofearofloss.Butfearoflossistherealreasonforfireinsurance.Thesecurityofknowingthatpropertyisprotectedbyinsurancemakesthepurchaseoffireinsuranceaworthwhileinvestmentformostpeople.Ifconsumersconsiderthequalityoftheinsuranceplansaswellasthemessageintheads,theywillbenefitfromtheadvertising.[結(jié)論句]Eachconsumermustevaluateherorhisownsituation.Arethebenefitsoftheproductimportantenoughtojustifybuyingit?Advertisingisintendedtoappealtoconsumers,butitdoesnotforcethemtobuytheproduct.Consumersstillcontrolthefinalbuyingdecision.

這是一例很典型的舉例法模式：作者一開(kāi)篇提出中心主題——Theappealofadvertisingtobuyingmotivescanhavebothnegativeandpositiveeffects.隨后通過(guò)信號(hào)詞（forexample）引出例子對(duì)中心主題加以說(shuō)明。緊接著在第二段段首句出現(xiàn)之后，作者又以“abrandofbread”為例，對(duì)段主題加以生動(dòng)地說(shuō)明。在第三段段主題之后，作者再一次引用“fireinsurance”為例子。最后作者在結(jié)尾段得出結(jié)論：Eachconsumermustevaluateherorhisownsituation。文章連貫，一氣呵成，且極具說(shuō)服力。又如：（2002年12月）Privatization,orthethreatofit,isamotivationaswell.Monopolies(壟斷者)thatuntilrecentlyhavebeenfreetotaketheircustomersforgrantednowfearwhatMichaelPerry,amarketingprofessor,calls“therevengeful(報(bào)復(fù)的)consumer.”WhenthegovernmentopenedupcompetitionwithBezaq,thephonecompany,itsinternationalbranchlost40%ofitsmarketshare,evenwhileofferingcompetitiverates.SaysPerry,“Peoplewantedrevengeforalltheyearsofbadservice.”Theelectriccompany,whosemonopolymaybeshort-lived,hassuddenlystoppedrequiringuserstowaithalfadayforarepairman.Now,appointmentsarescheduledtothehalf-hour.ThegracelessElAlAirlines,whichisalreadyatauction(拍賣(mài))，hasretraineditsemployeestoemphasizeserviceandisboastingabouttheresultsinanadcampaignwiththeslogan,“Youcanfeelthechangeintheair.”Forthefirsttime,praiseoutnumberscomplaintsoncustomersurveysheets.此段也是一例典型的舉例法模式：作者在主題句出現(xiàn)后，連續(xù)引用了三個(gè)例子（thephonecompany,theelectriccompany,theELALAirlines）來(lái)支持、論證段主題。（五）因果法：一種極為常見(jiàn)的篇章段落組織模式。通常有以下幾種情形：①篇章段落的首句表達(dá)原因，隨后在輔助句后的細(xì)節(jié)支持句部分闡述原因所造成的結(jié)果。②或恰恰相反，篇章段落的首句給出結(jié)果，隨后在輔助句或支持句部分道出此結(jié)果相關(guān)的原因。此模式在四級(jí)閱讀測(cè)試中比比皆是，例如：（1999年1月）PresidentCoolidge'sstatement,“ThebusinessofAmericaisbusiness,”stillpointstoanimportanttruthtodaythatbusinessinstitutionshavemoreprestige(威望)inAmericansocietythananyotherkindoforganization,includingthegovernment.[中心主題]Whydobusinessinstitutionspossessthisgreatprestige?[段首句]OnereasonisthatAmericansviewbusinessasbeingmorefirmlybasedontheidealofcompetitionthanotherinstitutionsinsociety.SincecompetitionisseenasthemajorsourceofprogressandprosperitybymostAmericans,competitivebusinessinstitutionsarerespected.Competitionisnotonlygoodinitself,itisthemeansbywhichotherbasicAmericanvaluessuchasindividualfreedom,equalityofopportunity,andhardworkareprotected.

[段首句]Competitionprotectsthefreedomoftheindividualbyensuringthatthereisnomonopoly(壟斷)ofpower.Incontrasttoone,all-powerfulgovernment,manybusinessescompeteagainsteachotherforprofits.Theoretically,ifonebusinesstriestotakeunfairadvantageofitscustomers,itwilllosetocompetingbusinesswhichtreatsitscustomersmorefairly.Wheremanybusinessescompeteforthecustomers'dollar,theycannotaffordtotreatthemlikeinferiorsorslaves.

[段首句]Acontrastisoftenmadebetweenbusiness,whichiscompetitive,andgovernment,whichisamonopoly.Becausebusinessiscompetitive,manyAmericansbelievethatitismoresupportiveoffreedomthangovernment,eventhoughgovernmentleadersareelectedbythepeopleandbusinessleadersarenot.ManyAmericansbelieve,then,thatcompetitionisasimportant,orevenmoreimportant,thatdemocracyinpreservingfreedom.

[段首句]Competitioninbusinessisalsobelievedtostrengthentheidealofequalityofopportunity.Competitionisseenasanopenandfairracewheresuccessgoestotheswiftestpersonregardlessofhisorhersocialclassbackground.CompetitivesuccessiscommonlyseenastheAmericanalternativetosocialrankbasedonfamilybackground.Businessisthereforeviewedasanexpressionoftheideaofequalityofopportunityratherthanthearistocratic(貴族的)ideaofinheritedprivilege.

這是一篇典型的因果法模式：作者在開(kāi)篇時(shí)提出中心主題——“Whydobusinessinstitutionspossessthisgreatprestige?”然后在第二段進(jìn)行原因解釋?zhuān)篛nereasonisthatAmericansviewbusinessasbeingmorefirmlybasedontheidealofcompetitionthanotherinstitutionsinsociety。而本句恰好為第二段的段首句，隨后作者又對(duì)此段首句進(jìn)行原因剖析，使用了一個(gè)信號(hào)詞“since”。還引出另一系列原因而且成為下面三段的段首句。同樣地，作者圍繞這三段的段首句展開(kāi)了相關(guān)的原因分析。借助因果法組織模式，作者的論證層層推進(jìn)，思路清晰。另一種常見(jiàn)的因果模式在四級(jí)閱讀試題中也出現(xiàn)過(guò)，舉例如下：（1999年6月）

[主題句]WhyisAmericanlaggingbehindintheglobalPRrace?First,Americansasawholetendtobefairlyprovincialandtakemoreofaninterestinlocalaffairs.Knowledgeofworldgeography,forexample,hasneverbeenstronginthiscountry.Secondly,AmericanslagbehindtheirEuropeanandAsiancounterparts(相對(duì)應(yīng)的人)inknowingasecondlanguage.Lessthan5percentofBurson-Marshall'sU.S.employeesknowtwolanguages.OgilvyandMatherhasaboutthesamepercentageConversely,someEuropeanfirmshavehalformoreoftheiremployeesfluentinasecondlanguage.Finally,peopleinvolvedinPRabroadtendtokeepaclosereyeon

internationalaffairs.InthefinancialPRarea,forinstance,mostAmericansreadtheWallStreetJournal.Overseas,theircounterpartsreadtheJournalaswellastheFinancialTimesofLondonandTheEconomist,publicationsnotoftenreadinthiscountry.

作者在給出主題之后，通過(guò)first,secondly,finally陳述了三個(gè)原因。常見(jiàn)的表因果的信號(hào)詞有：because,since,asaresult,iscausedby,dueto,consequently,forthisreason,so,therefore,leadto等。（六）時(shí)間順序法：按照事件發(fā)生的時(shí)間的先后順序來(lái)陳述事實(shí)即為時(shí)間順序法。該方法常用于描述某一機(jī)器、某一種思想、某一個(gè)或某一事件的相關(guān)歷史。例如：[主題句]Manhaslearnedtotravelfasterandfasterthroughouthistory.Whenthewheelwasinventedoverathousandyearsago,manlearnedthatitwaspossibletotravelfasteronwheelsthanonfoot.Withtheinventionofthesteamengineabouttwohundredyearsago,manbegantotravelatwhatwascalled“dangerous”speedofbetween20to30milesanhour.Thegasolineenginesthatwereusedbetween1900and1920developedspeedsupto60milesanhour.Inthelate1920’s,propellerairplanesbegantoflyatthespeedofmorethan100milesanhour.Abouttwentyyearsago,manbegantotravelincommercialjetplanesatspeedsabove500milesanhour.該例為典型的時(shí)間順序法，作者按時(shí)間的先后對(duì)人類(lèi)的交通發(fā)展史進(jìn)行描述。時(shí)間順序法常見(jiàn)且容易辨認(rèn)。常用的信號(hào)詞有：before,after,next,then,once,untilnow,earlier,later,previously等。該模式在四級(jí)閱讀考試中也有典型的例子，例如：(1997年6月)Inthepast,makingstructuresquake-resistantmeantfirmyetflexiblematerials,suchassteelandwood,thatbendwithoutbreaking.Later,peopletriedtoliftabuildingoffitsfoundation,andinsertrubberandsteelbetweenthebuildinganditsfoundationtoreducetheimpactofthegroundvibrations.Themostrecentdesigngivesbuildingsbrainsaswellasconcreteandsteelsupports.Calledsmartbuildings,thestructuresrespondlikelivingorganismstoanearthquake’svibration.Whenthegroundshakesandthebuildingtipsforward,thecomputerwouldforcethebuildingtoshiftintheoppositedirection.（七）比較和/或?qū)Ρ确ǎ涸谏钪?，人們?duì)事物時(shí)常進(jìn)行比較和對(duì)比。在此，比較指出事物的相似之處，而對(duì)比是討論兩個(gè)事物的不同點(diǎn)。比較和對(duì)比組織模式可以分別使用，更多的時(shí)候是一起使用，因?yàn)槭挛镌诙鄶?shù)情況下既可有相同又有不同之處。例如：[主題句]Learningtoreadwellislikelearningtoimproveinasport.Therearesomanythingstothinkofallatthesametime.Theinexperiencedtennisplayer,forexample,mustremembertobendhisknees.Hemustthinkofkeepinghiseyesontheball.Hemustremembertoholdhiswriststraightandfollowthroughonhisswing.Theinexperiencedreaderalsohastoremembermanythingsatonce.Hemusttrytoreadinphrases,notwordbyword.Hemustanalyzenewwords,lookforthemainidea,noteimportantdetails.Andatthesametimehemustreadfasterandfaster.Boththebeginningreaderandthetennisplayerfeelfrustrated.Butpracticepaysoffforthetennisplayer.Practicewillpatoffforthereadertooandleadtohigherandshaperskills.Readingwellwillbecomeasnaturalashittingaballwell.該篇使用了比較模式：主題句之后，作者對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)閱讀和學(xué)習(xí)打網(wǎng)球進(jìn)行了三方面的比較。在比較的過(guò)程中使用了（like,also,too,as…as）等信號(hào)詞。再看下面一例：Thereislittledifferenceinthetwomagazines.Botharepublishedonceaweek,andbothreportthelatestnewsevents.Theyoftenhavesimilarphotographsonthefrontpage.Onemagazineislargerthantheother,butthedifferenceisnotimportant.該例雖短，但既有比較也有對(duì)比。比較和/對(duì)比法在四級(jí)閱讀測(cè)試在也很常見(jiàn)，如1999年1月的PassageFour：Solongasteachersfailtodistinguishbetweenteachingandlearning,theywillcontinuetoundertaketodoforchildrenthatwhichonlychildrencandoforthemselves.[中心主題]Teachingchildrentoreadisnotpassingreadingontothem.Itiscertainlynotendlesshoursspentinactivitiesaboutreading.Douglasinsiststhat“readingcannotbetaughtdirectlyandschoolsshouldstoptryingtodotheimpossible.”[段首句]Teachingandlearningaretwoentirelydifferentprocesses.Theydifferinkindandfunction.Thefunctionofteachingistocreatetheconditionsandtheclimatethatwillmakeitpossibleforchildrentodevisethemostefficientsystemforteachingthemselvestoread.Teachingisalsopublicactivity:Itcanbeseenandobserved.Learningtoreadinvolvesallthateachindividualdoestomakesenseoftheworldofprintedlanguage.Almostallofitisprivate,forlearningisanoccupationofthemind,andthatprocessisnotopentopublicscrutiny.

Ifteacherandlearnerrolesarenotinterchangeable,whatthencanbedonethroughteachingthatwillaidthechildinthequest(探索)forknowledge?Smithhasoneprincipalruleforallteachinginstructions.“makelearningtoreadeasy,whichmeans[結(jié)論]makingreadingameaningful,enjoyableandfrequentexperienceforchildren.”

Whentherolesofteacherandlearnerareseenforwhattheyare,andwhenbothteacherandlearnerfulfillthemappropriately,thenmuchofthepressureandfeelingoffailureforbothiseliminated.[結(jié)論]Learningtoreadismadeeasierwhenteacherscreateanenvironmentwherechildrenaregiventheopportunitytosolvetheproblemofleaningtoreadbyreading.

這是一篇議論文，作者開(kāi)宗明義，闡明中心主題，進(jìn)而通過(guò)對(duì)比的組織模式來(lái)分析教與學(xué)的本質(zhì)區(qū)別（第二、三段，特別關(guān)注第二段的段首句及其后面出現(xiàn)的黑體字部分），指出了閱讀不能靠傳授，而應(yīng)當(dāng)靠學(xué)生的自學(xué)。最后在結(jié)論部分（最后兩段）作者明確教授閱讀的原則。比較和/或?qū)Ρ确ㄖ谐Ｒ?jiàn)的信號(hào)詞有：similarly,too,also,likewise,inthesameway,unlike,ontheotherhand,