西方文明史復(fù)習(xí)資料,都是重點哦

1、1.American GovernmentConstitution The United States is a constitutional democracy, a type of government characterized by limitations (boundaries, restrictions) on government power spelled out in a written constitution. Written in 1787, the U.S. Constitution is both the oldest and shortest written co

2、nstitution in the world. It serves as the supreme (highest, greatest) law (rule, regulation) of the United States.The Constitution The Constitution outlines a federal government with three separate branches: the legislative (lawmaking) branch (Congress), the executive (decision-making) branch (the p

3、residency), and the judicial branch (the courts). Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the Constitution, which safeguard some specific rights of the American people and the states. Many states ratified (approved) the Constitution in 1788 and 1789 on the condition that Congress amend it to guar

4、antee certain civil liberties. James Madison drafted these first ten amendments himself, which collectively became known as theBill of Rights.The Bill of Rights protects some specific rights of both the American people and the states. The table on the next page summarizes the twenty-seven amendments

5、 to the Constitution Legislative Branch Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government and is responsible for creating laws. Congress consists of two chambers, an upper chamber called the Senate (100 members) and a lower chamber called the House of Representatives (435 members). HOR is

6、 fixed and proportionally distributed among the 50 states, each one representing the congressional district. Senate: 100 senators, 2 per state. Congress Congress has the sole (only) authority to make laws, levy taxes, declare war, and print money, among other powers. Congress also controls the feder

7、al budget.Executive Branch The presidency is the executive branch of the federal government. The president is elected every four years and is responsible for enforcing the laws that Congress makes. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and has the power to conduct foreign

8、relations.Judicial Branch The federal courts make up the judicial branch of the federal government, which consists of regional circuit courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest legal authority in the country and has assumed the power of judicial review to decide

9、 the legality (validity, truth) of the laws Congress makes. Mythical Founding Most Americans re-imagine the founding of the United States in mythical terms, as the triumph of wisdom over tyrannical ignorance and as the creation of something new and important in the world. American citizens tend to r

10、evere the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, and the Founding Fathers are seen as models of virtue (quality) and political wisdom. The iconic image of George Washington on the one-dollar bill or the statue of Abraham Lincoln inside the Lincoln Memorial fits in with this heroic vision

11、of the founders.Struggle Against Tyranny and Injustice Most Americans often think of their country as the champion of democracy and justice. Many events in American history are therefore seen as part of this struggle. Americans tend to think of the: Civil War as a battle to end slavery World War II

12、as the defeat of evil tyrants Cold War as a triumph of democratic values over communism and totalitarianism. Today, many Americans see the fight against terrorism as the latest example of the United States standing up for what is right in the world. (World police) Today, many Americans see the fight

13、 against terrorism as the latest example of the United States standing up for what is right in the world. (World police)History as Progress Although the United States is not a perfect democracy, many Americans interpret its history as progress toward a better democracy. In this view, America has imp

14、roved from century to century, getting better and more democratic over time. The expansion of the right to vote is the best example. e.g., At the start of the republic, the right to vote was restricted in most places to older, wealthy, white landowners. Right to Vote Over time, all citizens won the

15、right to voteIncluding the middle classes, the poor, Women (1920), People of other races (1965), Younger people (1970), American democracy has thus grown as more people have been allowed to participate.2. Superhero mythology reg Intro: HistoryWhat is a myth?A story of unknown authorship that people

16、told long ago in an attempt to answer serious questions about how important things began and occurred.They are stories that explain natural occurrences and express beliefs of right and wrong. Myths usually have a religious or spiritual sense They are early mans desire to explain the universe.i.e., A

17、pollo, the son of Zeus, drove the chariot of the sun across the skyGods and Goddesses The gods, goddesses, and heroes are super human in nature.i.e., Atlas bore the weight of the world and the heavens on his shoulders. Gods sometimes appear in disguised form Human emotions are experienced by the God

18、s i.e., Heras jealousy (we will talk about this in a moment)Common Themes in Mythology Good vs. Evil Light vs. Dark A metamorphosis may occur Like a butterfly In Greek mythology The stories were part of their religion Their festivals and ritual practices came from the storiesWhat is Greek Mythology?

19、 The ancient Greeks were polytheistic, meaning they worshiped multiple gods. They also told many stories (myths) about the gods, which were meant to guide human behavior and teach about the relationship between gods and humans. The people of ancient Greece shared stories called myths about the gods,

20、 goddesses, and heroes in which they believed. Each god or goddess was worshipped as a deity and ruled over certain areas of the Greeks lives. These exciting stories explained natural phenomena that could not be explained by science in the ancient world.Why is it important? “As one of the major cont

21、ributors to Western civilization, ancient Greek culture has provided the creative energy and prototypes for later forms of Western society. Intellectual and cultural achievements, together with social and economic developments in ancient Greece and its neighboring areas, mark the real beginning of W

22、estern civilization and the ending of the uncivilized, barbarous age” (pg. 7). The Ancient Greek culture has been kept alive by the oral and later written stories handed down through thousands of years. Modern plays, novels, television programs, movies and even advertisements refer to Greek gods, go

23、ddesses, heroes and their stories. Their history entertains us and provide us with modern Western culture.Gods and Goddesses of the Pantheon on Mount OlympusZeus Leader of the Olympian Gods (page 12) He ruled the Olympians. He was the god of the sky, lightning and thunder carrying a thunderbolt as h

24、is symbol (much like a superhero we will talk about in a moment). He married Hera, his sister, which was a family habit. He fathered many children with various goddesses and mortals.Hera Wife of Zeus She was the protector of marriage and the home. She was associated with the peacock, because of her

25、great beauty. She and Zeus were always quarreling. She was called the queen of intriguers, a vindictive and jealous wife, who frequently outwitted her husband, Zeus.Poseidon God of the Sea He built an underwater palace with a great pearl and coral throne. Although he chose Thetis, a beautiful water

26、nymph, as his queen, he, like his brother Zeus, was a great wanderer fathering hundreds of children. He was a difficult god, changeful and quarrelsome, but created many curious forms for his sea creatures. He invented the horse for his sister Demeter, whom he loved.Hades God of the Underworld He was

27、 the jealous brother to Zeus and Poseidon. He made Persephone his wife after stealing her from her mother, Demeter, who was his sister. Because he was a violent god, who was also very possessive of every new soul, he rarely left his underworld domain.Athena-Goddess of Wisdom, Justice, War, Civilizat

28、ion and Peace She was born full grown out of the head of Zeus. She taught man to use tools and taught his wife to spin and weave. She was the best-loved goddess on Olympus. She hated Ares, god of war, often besting him in battle. The Greek city of Athens is named after her. She was said to have crea

29、ted the spider.Apollo-The Sun God; God of Music, Poetry, Wisdom, Light and Truth He was the twin brother of Artemis and the most handsome of the gods. He was also the god of the healing arts and of medicine. He drove his chariot across the sky to pull the sun each day. His son, Phaethon, drives Apol

30、los sun chariot with disastrous resultsSo what does this have to do with superheroes? 1.In addition to gods and goddesses, the Greeks included many heroes in their myths. Heroes were either human or demigods (the offspring of a human and a god or goddess). 2. Most superheroes of today have their ori

31、gins in the ancient myths of Greece, Rome, and other old empires. Today, we worship superheroes in the same ways we once worshipped the gods. Zeus and SupermanBoth Superman and Zeus are born leaders, the most powerful of their respective groups. Superman is often thought of as godlike, the alien dei

32、ty who has become incredibly protective of his adoptive home. Like Zeus, Superman dons a disguise so that he may walk among the mortals and see what life is like on the ground. But both are much more at home in the sky, soaring above us like the gods they are.Hades and BatmanThe dark prince, preferr

33、ing underground quarters and with unimaginable wealth 2. As Hades is the dark brother of Zeus, so too is Batman the dark version of Superman. Like Hades, Batman makes his home underground and a significant part of his power comes from his riches. This aspect in particular perhaps makes Batman more l

34、ike Pluto, the Roman version of Hades (page 37). Its hard not to think of Batman as ruling the underworld of the DC Universe, deciding the ultimate fate of damned souls. Additionally, Batman is often found on the outside of the JLA circle, the member no one quite trusts, much like Hades and his Olym

35、pic family.Poseidon and Aquaman1. Poseidon was the main inspiration for Aquaman. They have the same weapon of choice, the trident and both are considered ruler of the seven seas, able to command the ocean and its inhabitants. 2. Perhaps the main difference between the two is that while Poseidon is o

36、ne of the three most powerful of the Olympian Gods, Aquaman isnt seen as many peoples favorite superhero. I guess it just goes to show that the ancient Greeks thought that the ability to talk to fish was a lot cooler than we do.Hera and Wonder Woman So, putting aside the warrior aspect of the “Amazo

37、n warrior” for a moment, Wonder Woman is really all about the traditions of her people. She fiercely defends her home and her family- just like Hera. While she would likely disagree with Hera about the whole “needing a good man thing”, she does find herself paired with Superman and Steve Trevor quit

38、e a bit. At any rate, both are effectively the “mother” of their respective groups, and react quite fiercely if any of her family attacked.What Is A Superhero? 1. Like the gods and goddesses of mythology, a superhero possesses extraordinary or superhuman powers and is dedicated to protecting the pub

39、lic. However, by most definitions, characters do not strictly require actual superhuman powers to be deemed superheroes.Terms such as costumed crime fighters or caped crusaders are sometimes used to refer to those such as Batman and Superman.2. Normally, superheroes use their powers to counter day-t

40、o-day crime while also combating threats against humanity by super-villains, their criminal counterparts. Often, one of these super-villains will be the superheros archenemy. Common Traits Many superhero characters display the following traits:2.Extraordinary powers or abilities, relevant skills and

41、/or advanced 3.equipment. 4.Superhuman strength 5. Ability to fly6. Enhanced senses 7.The projection of energy bolts 8. A strong moral (ethical) code 10. expectation of reward.9. Willingness to risk ones own safety in the service of good without 11.Refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield letha

42、l weapons.12 A motivation (inspiration)13. Sense of responsibility (Spider-Man)15. Personal vendetta against criminals (Batman)16.Strong belief in justice and humanitarian service (Superman)17.Independent Wealth or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision18.A headquarters or base of operati

43、ons kept hidden from the general public Presentation3 The Old Testament 97Jewish Culture, The Old Testament, and The New TestamentMoses & Exodus: “Let My People Go!” Moses received revelations from God: burning bush, rod / staff, 10 plagues, parting of the Red Sea End of 13th century BCE- Moses led

44、the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt during Rames II reign called the EXODUS Moses led the 12 Tribes of Israel to Mount Sinai where Yahweh gave him the 10 Commandments, uniting the Hebrews under one God Moses and Hebrews searched for the “Promised Land” or the land of milk and honey, however they

45、wandered in the desert for 40 yearsJewish Culture Jewish culture emerged and survived in extraordinary circumstances. The Jewish people were exiled from one country to another in Europe and elsewhere in the world. As part of the origins of Western civilization, Jewish culture has contributed to the

46、Western historical development by providing substantial religious ingredients and many other aspects of the whole basic framework of Western society. At the same time, the Jewish people suffered a lot due to their cultural and religious distinctivenessA brief account of Jewish history It is said tha

47、t Jews belong to the Semitic race, as with the original Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Assyrians. They claim to be descended from Abraham, and have emigrated from Mesopotamia (along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) and have settled in the 16th C BC in north Egyppt and then entered Canaan in the 12th

48、C BC. After fighting many wars with local tribes, they ultimately settled on both sides of the Jordan River. The Division and Fall of Israel After Solomons death, a separatist movement headed by Jeroboam rose up in the north of Israel and broke the country into two parts, the south: Judah and the no

49、rth: Israel (ruled by the descendants of Solomon) Frequent wars occurred between the two sectors and weakened their power. In 722 BC, the Assyrian king and his troops attacked Jerusalem and Israel was ruined. Judah could not evade the fate of being destroyed. Under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar I

50、I, the king of Babylonia, Jerusalem was besieged twice and the second siege laster three years until the city was finally taken in 586 BC. (Babylonian Captivity) From then on, Judah and Israel were nonexistent as independent countries.Impact of Ancient Israel Covenant = formal agreement between Hebr

51、ews and God (Yahweh); Hebrews worshipped God and only God, and in return, they would be Gods Chosen People and given Canaan as the Promised Land Spiritual ideas profoundly influenced Western culture, morality, ethics and conduct Three of the worlds most dominant religions: Judaism, Christianity and

52、Islam all derive their roots from the spiritual beliefs of the Ancient IsraelitesWhat is the bible? The Bible is a book that can be found almost anywhere on the earth. It has been translated into more than 2000 different languages and dialects. It is also the worlds most popular book. Every year mor

53、e copies of the Bible are sold than any other publication, and the number of sales is increasing.Unknown Authorship1. The Bible is one of the worlds oldest books. Its oldest sections were written about 1500 years before the birth of Christ. Even its newest sections were written about 1900 years ago.

54、2. Clearly, then, having been written over a period of about 1600 years, the Bible was not written by one person. No one knows precisely how many people contributed to the Bible. It is estimated there were about forty authors.3. One of the most important facts about the Bible is that those who wrote

55、 it did not claim to be the source of the ideas they wrote about. sometimes indirectly, the authors assert that what they were writing really came from God. The Old Testament The Old Testament is the first section of the Christian Bible and is based primarily upon the Jewish, Hebrew Bible, a collect

56、ion of religious writings by ancient Israelites.The importance of Christianity Christianity is the most important religion in the Western world. Having served as a dominant ideological tool, Christianity once exerted powerful influences on the social and intellectual life of the Western world. It is

57、 still of much importance to the Western culture, especially in the spiritual life of the Westerners though its heyday has passed. It could be said that no one can understand the West without studying Christianity.However Christianity has been at the heart of great historical changes and has broken

58、up into several factions, principally Catholicism, the Eastern Orthodoxy and the Protestantism, which all try to interpret the Christian doctrines from different perspectives. This has given rise to more difficulties and complexities for those wishing to acquire a better knowledge of Western religionsChristianity and Judaism The relationship between Christianity and Judaism p