語言學(xué)重點(diǎn)概念總結(jié)

1、 Design features（定義特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共時的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（歷時的）: said of the study of development of languag

2、e and languages over time. Prescriptive（規(guī)定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描寫式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（語言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the syste

3、m of grammatical rules in a language. 對于一門語言的語法規(guī)則系統(tǒng)的無意識獲得的知識。 Performance（語言運(yùn)用）: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人們說話寫作時實(shí)際使用的語言。 Langue（語言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一個“語言社團(tuán)”共有的語言系統(tǒng)。 Parole（言語）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 說話人實(shí)際說的話語。

4、Phonology（音系學(xué)）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（國際音標(biāo)）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of

5、a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardinal Vowels（基本元音）: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to

6、 provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. Assimilation（同化現(xiàn)象）: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with “coarticulation”. If a following sound is influencing a

7、preceding sound, it is called regressive ”assimilation”; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive ”assimilation”. Maximal Onset Principle（最大節(jié)首原則）: a principle for dividing the syllable when there is a cluster of consonants between two

8、 vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. Morpheme（語素）: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without

9、 destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. Inflection（屈折變化）: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached. Derivation（派生詞）: is

10、the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. Bound morpheme（黏著語素）: refer to those which cannot occur alone and must appear

11、 with at least one other morpheme. Free morpheme（自由語素）: refer to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. Grammatical word（語法詞）: refer to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, article

12、s, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. Lexical word（詞匯詞）: refer to those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. Closed-class（封閉類）:

13、 A word that belongs to the CLOSED-CLASS is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member. Open-class（開放類）: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inve

14、ntions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs are all open-class items. Syntax（句法）: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the

15、 study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. Co-occurrence（共現(xiàn)）: It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Endocentric（向心結(jié)構(gòu)）: endocentric

16、 construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, which serves as a definable Center or Head of the whole. Exocentric（離心結(jié)構(gòu)）: exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally e

17、quivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group. Subordination（從屬關(guān)系）: refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the o

18、ther. The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. Coordination（并列）: a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,

19、but and or . Cohesion: refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, that define it as a text. Synonymy（同義關(guān)系）: synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation. Semantic components（語義成分）: semantic components, or semanti

20、c features, are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analysed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Psycholinguistics（心理語言學(xué)）: psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychologica

21、l states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders, language and

22、 thought, and cognitive architecture of language, The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production. Language acquisition（語言習(xí)得）: language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfu

23、lly, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage. cohort model（集群模型）: The cohort model is

24、a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990, it is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for acti

25、vation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input; the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. interactive model（交互模型）: The

26、interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain

27、cases, listeners knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise. serial model（串行模型）: Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually

28、and sequentially follows the constraints of a languages grammar with remarkable speed. Serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily g

29、rammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant. parallel model（并行模型）: Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lex

30、ical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Parallel model describes how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers

31、 integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence. figure-ground alignment（圖形-背景關(guān)系）: Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human pe

32、rception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground. basic level category（基本層次范疇）: Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most

33、 relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category. image schema（意象圖式）: Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor pr

34、ograms that gives coherence and structure to our experience. Metaphor（隱喻）: Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. Its often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the

35、metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience. Metonymy（轉(zhuǎn)喻）: Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another. Communicative Competence（交際能力）: is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell H

36、ymes in contrast with the “competence” vs. “performance” dichotomy in theoretic linguistics. Context of Situation（語境理論）: is a framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements (Firth, 1950: 43-44 Palmer, 1981: 53-54). A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, person

37、alities: (i) The verbal action of the participants. (ii) The non-verbal action of the participants. B. The relevant objects. C. The effects of the verbal action. Ethnography of Communication（交際民族學(xué)）: is an authoritative research framework of our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural facto

38、rs (Hymes, 1962). Speech Community（話語群體）: refers to a group of people who “share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.” (Hymes, 1972: 52) SPEAKING: is a mnemonic way of summarizing certain components of speech which make possible the description and analys

39、is of communicative behavior: S=Situation（場景）, P=Participants（參與者）, E=Ends（目的）, A=Act sequence（相關(guān)形式與內(nèi)容）, K=Key（語氣）, I=Instrumentalities（語式）, N=Norms（準(zhǔn)則）, and G=Genres（體裁）. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis（薩丕爾-沃爾夫假設(shè)）: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking an

40、d, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers unique ways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism. Variationist Linguistics（語言變體）: is a theoretic framework advanced by William Labov

41、 to study how language variation and change take place in different social contexts or geographic districts under the influence of social factors such as economics, education, class, gender, style, and so on. The method it uses is basically quantitative, but qualitative instruments have recently bee

42、n introduced in this branch of linguistic research for a better description and explanation of the data collected. performative（施為句）: A performative is a sentence like “I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”, which does not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a per

43、formative sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. Verbs like “name” are known as performative verbs. locutionary act（發(fā)話行為）: The locutionary act is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, . we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a

44、 certain meaning. For example, when somebody says “Morning!”, we could say he produced a sound, word or sentence “Morning!” perlocutionary act（取效行為）: The perlocutionary act concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opin

45、ion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. illocutionary act（行事行為）: The illocutionary act is the act performed i

46、n the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!” w

47、e can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. cooperative principle（合作原則）: This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs,

48、 by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims. conversational implicature（會話含義）: This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the

49、 basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese. entailment（衍推）: This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the tru