英語專業(yè)英語語言文學(xué)本科畢業(yè)論文

1、1 introduction language is one of the decisive factors that enable man different from other animals to live on earth. without language we can not learn, and solve problems. any simple tasks require language. without language it is difficult to refer to anything away from us in space and time. langua

2、ge allows human beings to adapt to changing circumstances far more quickly than would be achieved by evolution. human language is infinitely versatile. honeybees have a remarkable way of letting others know the direction in which a source of nectar lies and how far away it is by means of a dance, bu

3、t they could not begin to discuss the merits of other food stuffs or alternative ways of constructing their homes. in short, the nature and the dominance of the way of life that the human race possesses are due in very large part to the fact that human beings can speak. since we have seen the signif

4、icance of language, then, how might we define it? an earlier american linguist, edward sapir, gives a definition.he supports the hypothesis that language relates to communication between human beings. to him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pa

5、in. his definition that language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. for comparison we may look at a definition given by a modern british linguist,david crystal, who wrote the following:the d

6、iscussion may be summarized by referring to language as human vocal noise (or the graphic representation of this noise in writing) used systematically and conventionally by a community for purpose of communication. thus this definition also proposes communication as the principal function oflanguage

7、. what it does not do is the attempt to specify what is communicated.2 literature relevancethe theory of this paper is mainly about the definition and the function of the context,and its influences on translation. to finish this paper, newmark, peters theory and nida eugene a.s on the definition and

8、 the function of the context, and the theory of the contexts influences on translation of ye miao, yue jinsheng, zhang peiji gave me a great help. we should first understand the meaning of the context, generally speaking, it can be understood as an environment where the communicators communicate, th

9、e environment provided by the verbal language itself, which includes the level significance of language, language structure and the logical relationship between sentences provided by the context which constitutes the speech units. can any speech activity separated from the linguistic contest exists!

10、after knowing the definition of the context, we should have a general understanding of the functions of the context. the paper gives two main functions of the context: restrictive function, and the explanation function. both of the two functions have been given detailed explanation in the paper. fin

11、ally, we should have a clear sense of the contexts influences on translation. the paper gives three main influences:the environment of context influences the ideational meaning of the same word, the linguistic factors that influence the translators and non-linguistic contexts influence on english-ch

12、inese translation.3 on context3.1 the significance of the study of contextas a kind of information system, language is unique to human society. the communication with language- the transmitting and receiving of information, occurs only in particular environments and are influenced by and subject to

13、them as well. these actual environments are the basis of humans social communication; people using language in society all communicate on specific occasions, in a specific range, for specific purposes, and with specific people. in other words, these actual environments are the content surrounding a

14、word or a passage in written works and speech acts and the social and natural environments, including social status, sex, age of the speaker and the hearer, as well as their geographic, cultural, linguistic, ideological, and social, customary background. this actural environment is technically terme

15、d context, including linguist context (co-text), situational context, and cultural context. the status and value of context is becoming more and more important in the study of modern linguistics. why do so many branches of linguistics such as socio-linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, stylistics, and

16、 rhetoric all take up context as an important subject? why is it necessary for people to refer to context when they express or understand a word, a sentence or even a text? why a sentence that is appropriate on this occasion is inappropriate on that one? it is all because people are controlled by th

17、e context; no matter they are conscious or not. context is the environment in which language is understood, used and develops.it restrains language and determines its destiny.3.2 the definition of context and semanteme the purpose of language is communication, so any speech activities are carried on

18、 under specific circumstances.such environment can be interpreted as the context of a big topic, context of social and cultural in different time and defferent space. both sides of communication share the information of the background context ( ye miao, 2000); small enough we can understand such env

19、ironment as proposed by han lide context of scene, context of mode and context of the communicators; then smaller it can to be understood as the context provided by the verbal language itself, which includes the level significance of language, language structure and the logical relationship between

20、sentences provided by the context which constitutes the speech units. can any speech activity separated from the linguistic contest exists! in determining the meaning of words, we consider not only the language itself from the linguistic point of view, but also take into account the impact of the no

21、n-linguistic factors of its illocutionary extended meaning, so as to determine the semantics and should be accurate. context determines the semantic, and this version has been publicly known to all who occupy in translation. yue jinshengs analysis of the less amount of translation and how to compens

22、ate the amount by cultural compensation in the less the amount of translation and cultural compensation, is actually discoursing the contest determining the semantic and further semantic compensation. in his opinion, the less amount of translation owes to the cultural differences caused by the origi

23、nal source language and the target language culture(yue jinsheng 1999). that is to say, the determination of the semanteme must depend on the cultural contest. on the basis of grasping the context information, and establishing the semantics, when considering the issues of amplification and omission

24、of translating, the randomness will be greatly reduced , the words added would be no that word but has its meaning, and the words omitted would naturally beno more word than its meaning.(zhang peiji, 1983)。3.3 functions of context the reason why context has become a popular subject of study and caus

25、ed attention in the linguistic field recently is the importance of context itself. the importance would be heightened as we probe deeper into the urgency and inestimable practical value, however, is the direct essence of it. the teaching linguistic and the development of modern information science r

26、eason. language call for advanced theory, scientific description of context and especially the regularity of language in realistic use. context is like the loving mother as well as strict father: the former make words said or written possible while father disciplines all their children, making them

27、sensible and reasonable. in realistic linguistic activities, even the simplest word has its mother and father. their relation is the main question for discussion in the study of context. what kind of functions does context have in the actual study of language? and what are the characteristics and me

28、anings of these functions? the following is the explanation.3.3.1 restrictive function on scope: language activity is always restricted in certain context scope. (i)entire restriction means the context has an entire restriction on all the language activities. because the scales of language activitie

29、s are not the same, the contexts that restrict them are also different in size. it can be the whole human society, or just a sentence or even a word. generally speaking, context that has entire restrictive function in a literary work should be its setting, its theme, the writers productive motivatio

30、n and his or her style, all of which run through the whole work and influence its content and artistic expressions. the subject or theme or the adverbial modifier at the beginning of a sentence can restrict the structure or the content of this sentence. take the sentence children were singing and da

31、ncing. for instance. although the meaning is clear, readers would feel there is something missing here, e.g. the place where they were playing. using the context theory to explain this, we would know that if the doer, time, or occasion of a specific activity is not clear, the language will lose its

32、backing and the insufficiency of the information will arise. (ii)part restriction means that context only has the restrictive function on some parts of the linguistic activities. lets first draw an analogy. if the central governments control of the whole country is an entire restriction, then the ri

33、ght the local government has is a part restriction. take lu xuns the new year sacrifice for example, if the political system, the clan, the husband and religion, the feudalism and patriarchy are the entire restrictions that cause the life-long tragedy of xianglins wife, then a-maos death is a part r

34、estriction. though he died tragically and gave xianglins wife a big blow, it is not the basic factor that puts her to death. as we have said before, the subject, theme, and adverbial modifier at the beginning of a sentence can be the context that entirely restrict the sentence, the attribution, howe

35、ver usually has the part restrictive function. on direction: contexts restriction usually bears some directive quality (i)preceding and following restriction: such as the preceding ellipsis and following ellipsis.for example: a: when did you get to new york? b: (i got to new york) on 15 th. a: when

36、(did you get to new york)? b: i got to new york on 15 th. the preceding context and following context here are all the restrictive conditions for the ellipsis. (ii )forward and backward restriction means the linguistic context of an article or the words before or after a particular word of a talk. i

37、n an article, the beginning part usually restricts backward, while the ending part usually restricts forward. in an argumentation, the arguments setting forth is usually backward, and the conclusion is forward. narration is usually backward. generally speaking, in oral and written language, backward

38、 restriction occupies the dominant place. (iii) internal and external restriction means the relations between the internal factors and external factors of linguistic activities. the introduction of the time background of an article or the scenery description that can display characters psychology an

39、d personality are all types of internal and external restrictions. external restriction mainly refers to the influences those communicators factors have on the linguistic activity. for example, in an important meeting, the character, ideas and capability of an authority would usually affect the proc

40、ess of the meeting. on content: (i)plot restriction mainly rests with portraying characters images and revealing objects nature. this kind of restriction plays an important role especially in novels. how the expression of language suits the change of plot is plot restrictions requirement for languag

41、e. (ii)cultural restriction usually concerns the whole social environment where the linguistic activity takes place, including political, economic ideals, customary influences and personal, cultural and educational accomplishment as well. do as romans do and the chinese saying“對(duì)什么人說什么話”are the expre

42、ssions of cultural restriction. (iii) situational restriction is the environmental restriction on specific occasions. for instance, it is forbidden to say dirty things on table and say inauspicious words on weddings. on pattern: (i)structural restriction is the structures of the language and their d

43、emands on linguistic activities. for example, adverbials cannot modify nouns in chinese, which, however, is right in japanese. (ii)stylistic restriction means that the style of an article restricts the linguistic actions. any type of writing has its own style. these styles are not only the principle

44、s we should follow when we write, but also the basis we should draw support from when we read or study. (iii) type of writing restriction includes two sides: personal style and oral or written language. every writer, even every person has his or her own language style. some are good at using adjecti

45、ves and some do well in the usage of verbs.3.3.2 explanation function explanation function shows contexts function of explaining some phenomena inlanguage and in its study. semantic explanation: (i)explain the meaning beyond the word, which is neither the deep-structural meaning nor the meaning of d

46、ictionary entry. it is the new meaning a word acquires in a specific sentence. (ii)explain the situational meaning, which is, apparently, the meaning generated in specific situation. take the sentence oh my god! its so hot here. the hearer would probably go to open the window according to the situat

47、ional meaning of the sentence, though the speaker does not ask him to do so. grammatical explanation: some languages, such as chinese, do not have inflexions, and to distinguish the parts of speech of words and to explain grammar rules and grammatical phenomena all depend on the help of content. (i)

48、how to explain parts of speech and morphological features is always a controversial topic. for example, in chinese, many words can be used both as verbs and nouns. only in context can they be determined. (ii )explain grammatical rules. since some ungrammatical sentences are acceptable in certain con

49、texts, it is important to adapt a grammatical rule to all kinds of contexts if we want to study and establish it. (iii)explain grammatical phenomena. one scholar once noted that in chinese, if the object has a number modifier, there must be word“了”after the verb. for example,“他買一本小說”sounds unnatural

50、 while“他買了一本小說”is better. however,“他買一本小說”is fine in the sentence“書店里擠滿了人，你買一本字典，他買一本小說”.so, attention should be paid to context in the study of any language phenomena or rules, not to mention translation. rhetorical explanation:rhetoric is the art of using language and could never exist without con

51、text. ( i )explain rhetorical phenomena. lets look at this sentence:“月光如流水一般，靜靜地瀉在這一片葉子和花上?！?)how can the subject lights be followed by the verb“瀉”?in this context, it is actually not only a grammatical but a vivid expression. (peng, 1998) (ii )explain rhetorical effect. a: so what can you do to me?

52、 eat me? b: no, i cant. im the huis. the above dialogue would be difficult to understand without the help of cultural context: the huis never eat pork. what b means is that a is a pig. (iii)explain rhetoric rules. respect the context and take the advantage of explaining rhetoric should be the first

53、principle of rhetoric.4.how context influences english-chinese translation4.1 the environment of contest influences the ideational meaning of the same word since context is the environment where language lives, then, translation, as the transference from one language to another, cannot be separated

54、from context. under different contest environments, the same word or expression may have different interpretations.for example:a. the doctor is performing an operation on a patient for appendicitis.醫(yī)生正在為病人施行闌尾手術(shù)。 b. these speculators carry on black market operations. 這些投機(jī)商在進(jìn)行黑市交易。 c. the military op

55、erations embody the tactical use of atomic weapons. 這場(chǎng)軍事演習(xí)體現(xiàn)了原子武器的戰(zhàn)術(shù)應(yīng)用。 d. our class learns the law of four operations. 我們班在學(xué)習(xí)加減乘除四則運(yùn)算。 e. however, by adding certain attachments to the planer, the same will lend itself to special machining operations on special work. 然而，在刨床上增加一些附件，就可以對(duì)特殊工作進(jìn)行專門加工。 fr

56、om the example, we can easily get the idea that as a representative symbol of mankinds activities, contest determine the range of ideational meaning.4.2 the linguistic factors that influence the translator generally speaking, in translating process, the main objects the translator pursues intentiona

57、lly are nothing more than these two: the perfect unification of forms and contents between the original texts and their translations and the whole artistic characteristics represented in the unification. it seems that it is only the linguistic factors that influence the translator. however, if we de

58、lve into the depth of our study-the reproduction of the style and effect, we would realize the importance of the non-linguistic factors, which is clearly exemplified in the following versions of a well-known saying of benjamin franklin. liu zhongde has said that words have not definite meaning and translating has not definite ways. this explains the key problem of translation: context provides the background