THE EVIDENCE BASE OF DIRECT PHONICS：直接法的證據(jù)基礎(chǔ)

1、.Direct Phonics 14.7.06THE EVIDENCE BASE FOR DIRECT PHONICSDr Rea ReasonEducational Support and InclusionSchool of EducationThe University of ManchesterManchester M13 9PL0161 275 3460rea.reasonmanchester.ac.uk1. INTERVENTION AT WAVE 3Wave 3 interventions involve assessment of individual needs, stren

2、gths and weaknesses and re-tracking of progress in relation to NLS targets. In planning for the children, it is important to consider not only literacy learning but also approaches that facilitate participation in all areas of the curriculum. Nevertheless, the focus of the present document is on add

3、itional literacy instruction in the form of Wave 3 word level programmes. Current evidence shows that, to be effective, such programmes need to contain the following elements: - incremental coverage of phonics within a cumulative sequence of language targets- methods that emphasise the links between

4、 speaking, listening, reading and writing - repetition to ensure learning to the point of mastery/fluency - careful assessment and record keeping showing what has been taught and what the child has learnt Children may have semantic difficulties that hinder comprehension of what they are reading and

5、the expression of their own ideas in speech and in writing (Snowling, 2002). Particular attention then has to be given to enhancing sentence and text level learning. There may also be cultural or linguistic reasons that make literacy learning in English more difficult. This demonstrates the importan

6、ce of multi-disciplinary planning and intervention where the NLS framework can provide a common language for all those involved. According to Torgesen (2002), a critical challenge for research is to determine the appropriate balance between phonemically explicit teaching and instruction in broad lan

7、guage skills. What balance is most effective in producing long-term results in reading comprehension, fluency and enjoyment for children at risk? If the amount that children read determines fluency then children without difficulties become fluent readers because they read a lot. Children who struggl

8、e are left behind not only because of their difficulties but also because they read much less. For this reason, we need to look for links between word and text level learning within the NLS and, in addition to repetitive and cumulative word level programmes, ensure the enjoyment of continuous text.

9、A focus on phonics must not limit childrens opportunities to listen to stories and other information and to read books with assistance. If they find the content exciting and rewarding, they are motivated by the very purpose of literacy. 2. DIRECT PHONICSIn 1999 an earlier version of the Direct Phoni

10、cs manuals, entitled Fresh Start Phonics, was piloted in the Manchester primary schools that had volunteered to participate in the project. On the basis of these trials, Book One was re-written in its current form. Direct Phonics now addresses the needs of children who continue to struggle with basi

11、c literacy even after they have participated in initiatives such as the NLS Early Literacy Support. It is suitable for a wide age range if the children involved require detailed lessons at the levels covered by the three manuals:Book One covers single letter sounds, c-v-c words (e.g. cat, dog) and a

12、 selection of sight words for sentences. From the very start, letter recognition leads to word building, sentence reading and writing.Book Two teaches consonant blends (e.g. bl, ck, tr, gr, str) and revises consonant digraphs (sh, ch) at the beginnings and ends of words e.g: black, chick, shop, stic

13、k, clock, string. It also introduces qu and a selection of additional blends (ee, ay, ar, ing, ow, oo, ea). Book Three teaches children to read and write words containing many syllables polysyllabic words (e.g. fan-tas-tic). Children also learn to read and write words made of two shorter words (e.g.

14、 sea-shell). All activities draw on the themes and vocabulary of stories included in the manual.The model-lead-check routine (Carnine, Silbert and Kameenui, 1997) is a supported learning technique that is central to the programme. The routine introduces new letters, words and sentences and is also f

15、ollowed when requesting the children to spell the words. In this way even the very first lesson in Book One contains three letters, words made out of these letters and a short sentence containing the words. Children can cope with this amount of new learning because the teacher always models the acti

16、vity first. Subsequent lessons continue, of course, to repeat and reinforce the content. So Direct Phonics offers both structured teaching materials and an effective teaching method.While the materials have been designed for groups of children making similar progress, children with more marked speci

17、al needs do not often come in convenient groups. Therefore, teachers and teaching assistants have also followed Direct Phonics with individual children or pairs. We have found that some children make good progress once they have understood the concept of sound/symbol correspondence. For them the hig

18、hly repetitive programme of 60 lessons per book may be too slow and actually hold them back. For this reason, Book One and Book Two in Direct Phonics also contain a fast track consisting of a selection of 20 lessons that cover the same ground. Children can then switch between the complete and the fa

19、st track depending on teacher judgment of the amount of repetition that they need. In order to be able to construct sentences, key sight words are introduced from the very start. We have kept these sight words to the minimum as they require children to recognise words as a whole at a time when the c

20、hildren are learning to sound out elements within the words. We have found that, for many children, the sight words require more repetition than the phonically regular words because they cannot apply newly learnt phonic strategies to recognising sight words. The programme therefore also contains top

21、-up activities to reinforce the learning of these words as well as the phonically regular words. Sight words from Book One are repeated in Book Two and Book Three. Top-up activities also provide children with opportunities to develop skills in sentence building and independent writing.3. THE EVIDENC

22、E BASEThe evidence for the effectiveness of Direct Phonics draws on a convincing body of research that underpins the approach. The research is outlined below. In evaluating the practical aspects of the approach, we have relied heavily on the formative action research undertaken by teachers and their

23、 colleagues. We have found that the key elements that make Direct Phonics successful are:- The content is cumulative and repetitive - Checks of progress make sure that children have consolidated their learning- The teaching method follows a routine of model-lead-check - Blending (synthesising) phone

24、mes to build up words is central to the programme (reflecting the principles of synthetic phonics) - Children listen, speak, read and write in each lesson- Each lesson has the same predictable pattern - The clear instructions can be followed by both teachers and teaching assistants3.1 Evidence from

25、research in the area of Direct InstructionThe model-lead-check routine, within a cumulative learning programme, originates in extensive research in USA under the umbrella heading of Direct Instruction (Carnine and Silbert, 1979; Engelmann and Carnine, 1982; Carnine, Silbert and Kameenui, 1997). It h

26、as remained very influential in USA and its principles underpin the rationales of many current American programmes. The approach was also introduced in the UK in the 1980s for children making slow progress (e.g. Solity and Bull, 1987) but had limited acceptance at the time at least in part because l

27、anguage experience held sway over structured cumulative approaches. Now the NLS recognises the role of such programmes within a comprehensive model of literacy learning, In mainstream primary schools, the evaluation of the effectiveness of Early Reading Research (ERR) has involved approximately 200

28、schools mainly within the Essex LEA. Principles of direct instruction have been central to the approach and empirical results have been impressive (Solity et. al., 2000). It is important to bear in mind, however, that all Y1 children were involved and not only those requiring Wave 3 intervention. In

29、 fact, the concept of Wave 3 was alien to the programme that assumed that all children benefited from a carefully designed cumulative approach drawing on the principles of direct instruction (described by the authors as instructional psychology). Most recently, an independent review of the teaching

30、of early reading (the Rose Report, DfES 2006) has concluded that a systematic approach to phonics (often labelled synthetic) offers young children the most direct route to becoming skilled readers and writers.3.2 Evidence from the research programme entitled Interactive Assessment and Teaching (IAT)

31、 Interactive Assessment and Teaching (IAT) was based on the manual written by Reason and Boote (1994). The nature of the research programme and its results are reported in Nicolson et al (1999) and Fawcett et al (2001).The DfES funded evaluation of possible Wave 3 interventions, entitled What Works

32、for Children with Literacy Difficulties (Brooks, 2002), listed IAT as one of the programmes that met the strict criteria for effectiveness required by the evaluation. Subsequently, IAT was included in the DfES management guidance on Wave 3 intervention (Targeting support: choosing and implementing i

33、nterventions for children with significant literacy difficulties) and Direct Phonics has been included in the Wave 3 conferences.IAT is a pragmatic approach compatible with current theoretical views about the teaching of reading and spelling. It is an individually adaptive, curriculum-based programm

34、e with an emphasis on word building and phonic skills in the broad reading and writing context. Direct Phonics is based on this programme. It takes the phonics strand and develops it into scripted lesson plans that make it easy for teachers and teaching assistants to follow the programme. It is also

35、 flexible enough to allow for different rates and patterns of progress. 3.3 Evidence from formative action researchAs mentioned earlier, the first stage of the evaluation involved small scale trials with Year 1 teachers working with groups of children making slow literacy progress. The teachers prov

36、ided very positive feedback but, not unexpectedly, their main concern was lack of teacher time in the classroom. These first trials were mostly with children who were to benefit from the ELS materials introduced to schools as Wave 2 in the following year. It was felt, therefore, that Direct Phonics

37、needed to become even more deliberate and repetitive so that specialist teachers could introduce the materials for children in Wave 3.During 2001-02, Mary Metcalfe and Fiona Kelly, members of the Manchester Service for Inclusive Learning (as the service was named then), assessed the learning needs a

38、nd drew up individual learning plans for children receiving additional help at School Action or School Action Plus. They then supervised the work of teaching assistants that were piloting Direct Phonics (Fresh Start version) with the children. Twenty-five teaching assistants in 12 schools were invol

39、ved in the trials. They worked with a total of 152 children who were taught individually, as pairs or in small groups and ranged in age from Year 1 to Year 6. This was the first pilot and the programme has since then involved many more children. We regarded the evaluation of the programme as formati

40、ve rather than summative, i.e. we wanted to find out how to improve it rather than demonstrate in any categorical or comparative way that it worked better than other programmes. In any case, children with quite marked special needs were unlikely to snap out of their difficulties within a relatively

41、short period of time. In most cases, we found that children who had previously been stuck were now learning what they were being taught some slowly and some faster. The following were the overall impressions of the programme:- After an initial training session, it was important to monitor the work o

42、f teaching assistants as misconceptions could easily arise. Observations of their lessons provided a fruitful focus for feedback and for discussing issues of teaching and learning. - Direct Phonics worked because of the clear instructions, the repetitive and predictable lesson structure and the clos

43、e links between letter recognition, word building and sentence reading. - Most important, perhaps, was the childrens enjoyment of the lessons because they were experiencing success.But there were also difficulties to be overcome:- Sometimes group dynamics did not work and the teaching assistant had

44、difficulty in controlling the group. Even with individual work, some children had very short concentration spans. Here again, the importance of monitoring and supervision by a specialist teacher was emphasised. - There were organisational difficulties. In some schools it was not easy to find appropr

45、iate working space for the quiet atmosphere needed. Fitting in with the timetable of the school/class was also an area of concern. - There were examples where interruptions in childrens school attendance proved a major hurdle to progress. This was particularly problematic when the child was a member

46、 of a group and the group had moved on by the time the child returned to school.- Links between the content of the Direct Phonics programme and what was happening in the classroom was seen as both a strength and an area needing improvement. There were instances where teachers and teaching assistants

47、 worked closely together but there were also instances where implementation in the classroom could have been better.3.4 Evidence from projects in local authoritiesThe cover pages of the Direct Phonics manuals include the phrase research version because, with the help of those following the manuals,

48、we are continuing to research the programme and to gather further evaluative evidence. Here are examples of projects: Middlesbrough projectDirect Phonics has been introduced in every primary school in Middlesbrough. Support teachers evaluating progress have reported that it has not been difficult to

49、 set up the programme in schools; the format, structure and routine have been easy to follow; the content has appealed to a range of pupils; staff and children have been motivated because they have quickly noticed progress. Within this project, a smaller study, involving 25 children in 5 schools, ha

50、ve also used a standardised test (WRAPS - Word Recognition and Phonic Skills, Hodder & Stoughton, 1994) to evaluate progress. The mean ratio gain in reading age was 1.54, i.e. 6 months gain in 4 months. Although test results were pleasing, they did not show the amount that the children had actua

51、lly learnt. Curriculum-based assessment, drawing on the content of the manuals, was seen as more useful for the purposes of evaluation and planning. Tameside projectA project undertaken by Lisa Quinn in Tameside (Quinn, 2005) introduced Direct Phonics in 6 schools during 2002 - 03 and involved 15 te

52、achers and 11 teaching assistants working with 16 groups of children in total. Quantitative data was obtained for a total of 40 children who were aged between 72 89 months, on the following pre and post intervention measures: receptive language as measured by the BPVS, phonological skills as measure

53、d by the PhAB, basic word recognition as measured by the WORD, curriculum based measures relating to letter and word knowledge. Qualitative data was obtained through discussions with the teaching staff, their observations and records and examples of the pupils work.Curriculum-based measures drawing

54、on the content of Direct Phonics demonstrated most convincing progress. There were also significant gains in the scores on the WORD test but it was argued that, in comparison with curriculum-based assessments, standardised tests were blunt measures of progress for children in the beginning stages of

55、 literacy learning. Before the intervention, many of children showed phonological weaknesses on the PhAB test. The childrens scores improved significantly on the sample of subtests administered post-intervention. Correlational analysis showed that PhAB scores were not related to childrens curriculum

56、-based measures of progress or their progress on the WORD test. BPVS as a baseline measure of receptive vocabulary was significantly related to the curriculum based outcome measures. Qualitative information demonstrated that delivery of the intervention varied considerably across the six schools. At

57、 its best, all school staff were interested in the intervention and initiatives such as the gorilla club gave it status and enhanced childrens motivation and attentional control during lessons. Manchester projectAs mentioned in an earlier section of this report, schools in Manchester were the first

58、to pilot and evaluate the implementation of Direct Phonics. Subsequently, Manchester Education Partnership has published Wave 3 guidance for schools that considers the evaluation of several interventions. Evaluation of Direct Phonics Book 1 in 2005 - 06 involved four schools and 18 pupils and was curriculum-based in that tracking of progress showed the children to have learnt to read and spell t