二語(yǔ)習(xí)得復(fù)習(xí)提綱

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Chapter I Introduction Describing and Explaining L2 Acquisition1.1What is second language acquisition?Second language refers to any language that is learned subsequent to the mother tongue.1.2What are the goals of second language?The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proce

2、eds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others. 1.3Two case studies of L2 learners1.3.1 A case study of an adult learner1.3.2 A case study of two child learnersWhat do these case studies show us? a. They raise a number of important methodological issues rel

3、ating to how L2 acquisition should be studied b. They raise issues relating to the description of learner languagec. They point out some of the problems researchers experience in trying to explain L2 acquisition.1.4Methodological issuesWhat is that needs to be described?a. What it means to say that

4、a learner has acquired a feature of the target language?b. Whether learners have acquired a particular feature?c. How to measure whether acquisition has taken place? (Learners overuse of linguistic forms.)1.5Issues in the description of learner languagea. Learners make errors of different kinds.b. L

5、earners acquired a large number of formulaic chunks, which will influence their performance in communication and the fluency of their unplanned speech. c. Whether learners acquire the language systematically?1.6Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisitionItem learning: formulaic chunks System learnin

6、g: rules Internal (mentalist) account:External account:Chapter2 the Nature of Learner Language2.1Errors and error analysis 2.1.1 Identifying errors 2.1.1.1 Compare the learners language with the normal ones. 2.1.1.2 Distinguish errors and mistakes. Definition: Errors reflect gaps in a learners knowl

7、edge Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance. Methods: a. Check the consistency of learners performance. b. Ask them to correct their own utterance.Errors and mistakes: 2.1.2 Describing errors Methods: a. error type oriented: b. error maker oriented: Meaning: Classifying errors in these wa

8、ys can help us to diagnose learners learning problems at any one stage of their development and, also to plot how changes in error patterns occur over time. 2.1.3 Explaining errors Errors are systematic, predictable, and some of them are universal: (Learners has constructed some kind of “rule”, albe

9、it a rule different from that of the target language) Eg: omission: leave out the article “the”, leave out the s in plural nouns Overgeneralization error: eated-ate Transfer errors reflect learners attempt to make use of their L1 knowledge. 2.1.4 Error evaluationTypes of errors: Global errors: viola

10、te the whole structure of the sentence Local errors: affect only a single constituent in the sentence2.2Developmental patterns 2.2.1 The early stage of L2 acquisition Silent period: children make no attempt to say anything to begin with. This period makes a preparation for subsequent production. Tri

11、als and errors: Mulaic chunks: they provide learners with the means of performing useful language functions such as greetings and requests. Eg:“How do you do?” “My name is_” Propositional simplification: leave words out Eg: “Me no blue” 2.2.2 The order of acquisition Accuracy order: there is a defin

12、ite accuracy order and that this remains more or less the same irrespective of the learners mother tongues, age, and whether or not they have receive formal language instruction.2.2.3 Sequence of acquisition a. The acquisition of a particular grammatical structure, therefore, must be seen as a proce

13、ss involving transitional constructions.b. Acquisition follows a U shaped course of development.c. The process in which learners reorganize their existing knowledge in order to accommodate new knowledge is called restructuring.2.2.4 Some Implications a. L2 is systematic and universal, reflecting way

14、s in which internal cognitive mechanisms control acquisition, irrespective of the personal background of learners or the settings in which they learn.b. Some linguistic features are inherently easier to learn than others. 2.3Variability in learner languagea. Variability is also systematic, that is,

15、learners use their linguistic sources in predictable ways.b. Learners vary in their use of the second language according to linguistic context (George playing football/ .all the time) situational context.(kids/daughter)& psycholinguistic context (prepared/unprepared)c. form-function mappingd. fr

16、ee variation:e. fossilization:石化成因任何現(xiàn)象的出現(xiàn)都不是偶然的,是可以追溯出它的原因的,二語(yǔ)習(xí)得過(guò)程中出現(xiàn)的中介語(yǔ)石化現(xiàn)象也是有著根本性的原因的。Selinker從中介語(yǔ)理論的分析角度將石化現(xiàn)象形成的原因歸納為五個(gè)過(guò)程:母語(yǔ)遷移、培訓(xùn)轉(zhuǎn)移、二語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)策略、二語(yǔ)交際策略和目的語(yǔ)過(guò)度概括。Selinker對(duì)石化的解釋更多的是石化的主要表現(xiàn),而沒有找出石化的根本原因。后來(lái),Ellis又對(duì)Selinker和Lamendella的研究作了如下總結(jié):(1)內(nèi)因:年齡因素:即當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者達(dá)到一定的關(guān)鍵期,他們的大腦失去了可塑性,因而就無(wú)法掌握某些語(yǔ)言特征;缺乏與目的語(yǔ)社會(huì)文化融合的

17、欲望:由于各種不同的社會(huì)和心理因素,學(xué)習(xí)者對(duì)接受目的語(yǔ)文化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不做出努力。(2)外因:交際壓力:持續(xù)不斷的交流壓力要求使用目的語(yǔ)超出了學(xué)習(xí)者的語(yǔ)言能力導(dǎo)致石化的發(fā)生。缺乏學(xué)習(xí)機(jī)會(huì):學(xué)習(xí)者缺乏獲得輸入和使用第二語(yǔ)言的機(jī)會(huì)。反饋性質(zhì)：對(duì)學(xué)生第二語(yǔ)言使用的影響:肯定的認(rèn)知回饋(表示“我明白你的話”)導(dǎo)致石化的發(fā)生;否定的回饋(表示“我聽不懂你的話”)有助于消除石化。應(yīng)對(duì)策略(一)增加二語(yǔ)的輸入量大多數(shù)二語(yǔ)的初學(xué)者如果得不到足夠的二語(yǔ)的陳述性知識(shí),就會(huì)出現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言的穩(wěn)定期。所以外語(yǔ)教學(xué)中,當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者已經(jīng)達(dá)到某種精通程度后,應(yīng)該增加他的二語(yǔ)輸入量。二語(yǔ)的輸入既要重視數(shù)量又要重視質(zhì)量。課堂教學(xué)材料要多樣化,當(dāng)前

18、的許多教材應(yīng)該編輯一系列激發(fā)二語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)的語(yǔ)境和篇章,如報(bào)刊文章、海報(bào)、廣告等。學(xué)生應(yīng)盡可能多利用課外聽、說(shuō)、讀寫資源和任何可以增加二語(yǔ)輸入量的機(jī)會(huì)。第二語(yǔ)言的輸入應(yīng)該包括音位知識(shí)、語(yǔ)法和詞匯。第二語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的積累還應(yīng)該包括相關(guān)的文化知識(shí)輸入。對(duì)語(yǔ)言遷移的研究表明學(xué)習(xí)者對(duì)語(yǔ)言的標(biāo)志性特征比較敏感,所以某種語(yǔ)言的一般特征而不是可區(qū)別性特征更容易導(dǎo)致石化。這樣,為了避免石化,語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者需要比較母語(yǔ)和目的語(yǔ)的文化,找出存在于兩種語(yǔ)言之間結(jié)構(gòu)表達(dá)上的異同來(lái)減少母語(yǔ)的遷移。(二)融合聽、說(shuō)、讀、寫四種技能促進(jìn)自動(dòng)化和認(rèn)知以認(rèn)知理論對(duì)二語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)所做的分析為基礎(chǔ),針對(duì)我國(guó)大多數(shù)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者產(chǎn)生石化的主要原因，并借

19、鑒Brown的建議,針對(duì)中級(jí)學(xué)習(xí)者,我們可以適當(dāng)采取綜合聽、說(shuō)、讀、寫四種技巧的教學(xué)方法:第一種是以內(nèi)容為中心的教學(xué)(content-based teaching),這種教學(xué)以教授某專業(yè)的內(nèi)容為主,把英語(yǔ)作為學(xué)習(xí)該專業(yè)的交流手段,學(xué)生要想學(xué)好專業(yè)課,必須使自己的英語(yǔ)在聽、說(shuō)、讀、寫等方面都達(dá)到一定的水平才能取得成功;第二種是以主題為中心的教學(xué)(theme-basedteaching),這種教學(xué)方法圍繞某一能夠激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣的主題或話題組織教學(xué)。例如英語(yǔ)精讀課就可以圍繞公共衛(wèi)生、環(huán)境意識(shí)、世界經(jīng)濟(jì)等課題展開教學(xué),目前在我國(guó)這種方法已被普遍采用,但由于教師的準(zhǔn)備不夠,更重要的是由于教材的編制不能滿足

20、或跟上實(shí)際需要,所以沒能達(dá)到這種方法的最佳效果;第三種是以任務(wù)為中心的教學(xué)(task-based teaching),這種方法更注重語(yǔ)言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中功能的實(shí)現(xiàn),在課堂上語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的輸入以各種真實(shí)的資料為主,如面試、采訪、公告、菜單等,要求學(xué)習(xí)者使用所學(xué)的英語(yǔ)知識(shí)在實(shí)際生活中完成某一具體任務(wù),這樣就突出了語(yǔ)言的功能性特點(diǎn)。對(duì)于高級(jí)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者來(lái)說(shuō),提供真實(shí)的語(yǔ)境是當(dāng)務(wù)之急,學(xué)習(xí)者可以通過(guò)大量觀看原版英文電影、英語(yǔ)電視節(jié)目以及用英語(yǔ)寫影評(píng)、日記等方式來(lái)彌補(bǔ)缺少真實(shí)語(yǔ)境的不足,另外盡可能多地和外教或本族語(yǔ)是英語(yǔ)的外國(guó)人交流并充分利用互聯(lián)網(wǎng)最大限度地使自己接觸自然真實(shí)的英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)境。Chapter 3 Int

21、erlanguage3.1 Behaviorist Learning TheoryLanguage learning theory is like any other kind of learning in that it involves habit formation.But it is not adequate to adequately account for L2 acquisition, since learners frequently do not produce output that simply reproduce input.Habit-stimulus- respon

22、se connection3.2 A mentalist theory in language learning v Main ideas of this theoryv 1. Only human beings are capable of learning language.v 2. The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning languageLanguage Acquisition Device(語(yǔ)言習(xí)得機(jī)制）.v 3. This faculty is the primary determinant of LA.v 4.

23、Input is needed, but only to 'trigger' the operation of the language acquisition device.3.3 What is “interlanguage”?It refers to the systematic knowledge of an L2 that is independent of both the target and the learner's L1. . A learner's interlanguage is a unique linguistic system.Th

24、e premises of interlanguagev 1. Interlanguage is viewed as a 'mental grammar'.（心理語(yǔ)法）v 2. The learmer's grammar is permeable.（滲透性）v 3. The learner's grammar is transitional.（遷移）v 4. The systems learners construct contain variable rules.多變v 5. Learners employ various learning strategie

25、s to develop their interlanguage.（學(xué)習(xí)策略）v 6. The learner's grammar is likely to fossilize.（石化） 1. Mental Grammarv The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a 'mental grammar' and i

26、s referred to as an 'interlanguage'.2. Permeable v The grammar is open to influence from the outside (i.e. through the input). It is also influenced from the inside. (i.e.omission, overgeneralisation) computational model of L2 acquisition3. Transitionalv Learners change their grammar from on

27、e time to another by adding rules, deleting rules, and reconstructing the whole system.v This results in an interlanguage continuum(連續(xù)體)eg. Paint paint, painting paint, painting, painted4. Variable v Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules. That is, t

28、he learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage of development. v Other researchers argue that interlanguage systems are homogenerous and that variability reflects the mistakes learners make when they try to use their knowledge to communicate.v 5.learning strategies Learners employ v

29、arious learning strategies to develop their interlanguages. The different kinds of errors learners produce reflect different learninf strategies.6. FossilizationSelinker suggested that only about 5% of learners go on to develop the same mental grammar as native speakers.3.4 Computational model of L2

30、 acquisition v inputintakeL2 knowledgeoutput 'Black box' of the learner's mind=interlanguage constructed Other ways to elaborate this basic model'Social context' added to explain how the nature of the input varies from one setting to another'L2 knowledge' broken up into t

31、wo or more components to reflect the different kinds of knowledge learners constructs.e.g. explicit knowledge about language & implicit knowledge of language(P35)An arrow can be drawn from 'output' to 'input'.Chapter 4 Social aspects of interlanguage 4.1 Interlanguage as a stylis

32、tic continuum (風(fēng)格連續(xù)體)Stylistic continuum: a. careful style 謹(jǐn)慎體 b. vernacular style通俗體Problems: a. Learners are not always most accurate in their careful style and least careful in their vernacular style. b. the role of social factors remains unclear.Accommodation theory:How social groups influence t

33、he courses of L2 acquisition. (Convergence, divergence)4.2 The acquisition model of L2 acquisition( 儒化模式)Social distance, psychological distance, pidginization4.3 Social identity and investment in L2 learningCultural capital is needed to invest in language learning.Chapter 5 Discourse Aspects of Int

34、erlanguage5.1Acquiring discourse rules Discourse rules refer to the rules or regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversations.5.2The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition1. Stephen Krashens input hypothesis L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input tha

35、t contains grammatical forms that are at i+1 (are a little more advanced than the current state of the learners interlanguage) . L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input.（可理解的語(yǔ)言輸入) Current state: i next advancing state: i+1 2. Michael Longs interaction hypothesis（互動(dòng)假說(shuō)） Michael Longs interactio

36、n hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning（意義協(xié)商）3. Evelyn Hatch: Scaffolding Evelyn Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavors of the learners and their interlocutors in constructin

37、g discourse and suggests that syntactic structures can grow out of the process of building the discourse 4. Scaffolding（支架學(xué)習(xí)法） Learners use the discourse to help them produce utterances that they would not be able to produce on their own. Mark: Come here. Homer: No come here. 5.3The role of output i

38、n L2 acquisition Krashen: Speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause. The only way learners can learn from their output is by treating it as auto-input. Merrill Swain: Comprehensible output also plays a part in L2 acquisition. 1) To serve a consciousness-raising function by helping learners

39、 to notice gaps in their interlanguages. 2) To test hypotheses. 3) To identify problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.Chapter 6 Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage 6.1 L1Transfer Negative transfer Positive transfer AvoidanceContrastive analysis Speech acts Interlan

40、gage development cannot follow a restructuring continuum6.2The role of consciousness in L2 acquisition Schmidt argues that learning cannot take place without what he calls noticing.Implicit knowledge: the result of an automatic process隱性知識(shí)：二語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者能用但表達(dá)不出來(lái)的直覺知識(shí)Explicit knowledge: the result of an effor

41、tful process 顯性知識(shí)：二語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者能意識(shí)到、 能說(shuō)出來(lái)的語(yǔ)言規(guī)則知識(shí) v It is perhaps self-evident that all language users, including L2 learners, know rules that guide their performance without any awareness of what the rules consist of. They can always reflect on this implicit knowledge 隱性知識(shí), thus making it explicit.v It is a

42、lso clear that L2 learners may have knowledge about the L2 (i.e. explicit knowledge 顯性知識(shí)) but be unable to use this knowledge in performance without conscious attention.6.3 Processing operations Operating principles Ø The study of the L1 acquisition of many different languages has led to the id

43、entification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segment linguistic information from the language they hear.Ø Examples: avoid interruption rearrangement of linguistic units avoid exceptions Multidimensional modelØ This theory sought to account for both why l

44、earners acquire the grammar of a language in a definite order and also why some learners only develop very simple interlanguage grammars.Ø It distinguishes a developmental and a variational axis. Processing constraints 6.4 Communication strategiesØ Avoid problematic itemsMy brother made me

45、 to give him some money.Ø Borrow a word from L1 Ø Use another target-language word that is approximate in meaning Ø Paraphrase the meaning of word Ø Construct an entirely new wordPsycholinguistic models to account for the use of communication strategies For example: Claus Faerch

46、and Gabriele Kasper proposed a model of speech production. 6.5 Two types of computational modelSerial processing: 串行處理 Information is processed in a series of sequential steps and results in the representation of what has been learned as some kind of rule or strategyParallel distributed processing:

47、并行處理 Learners with the ability to perform a number of mental tasks at the same time Chapter 7 linguistic aspects of interlanguage 7.1Typological universals: relative clause 當(dāng)代類型學(xué)是從微觀的視角研究語(yǔ)言各個(gè)層面的類型特征與共性，通過(guò)對(duì)大量語(yǔ)言的觀察，統(tǒng)計(jì)和對(duì)比，從中發(fā)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言的普遍規(guī)律和形成這些規(guī)律的普遍性制約因素，并探究其形成動(dòng)因，以解釋和預(yù)測(cè)語(yǔ)言可能具有的變化模式，從而揭示語(yǔ)言發(fā)展變化的本質(zhì)。當(dāng)代類型學(xué)理論中的“標(biāo)記性

48、”，“蘊(yùn)含共性”和“語(yǔ)法層級(jí)”對(duì)二語(yǔ)習(xí)得研究產(chǎn)生了巨大的影響，開啟了基于類型學(xué)理論的二語(yǔ)習(xí)得研究路徑。7.2Universal grammarChomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different language.7.3Learnability Chomsky has claimed that children learning their L1

49、 must rely on innate knowledge of language because otherwise the task facing them is an impossible one. His argument is that the input to which children are exposed is insufficient to enable them to discover the rules of the language they are trying to learn. This insufficiency is referred to as the

50、 poverty of the stimulus.7.4The critical period hypothesis(語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)關(guān)鍵期假設(shè))The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete (i.e.native-speaker ability is achieved) and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete. 7.5Access to UG

51、1. Complete access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access7.6Markedness The degree of markedness correlates with the order of acquisition.（可標(biāo)記等級(jí)與語(yǔ)言習(xí)得順序是相關(guān)的）一對(duì)語(yǔ)言特征包括兩個(gè)對(duì)立體: 有標(biāo)記的和無(wú)標(biāo)記的。無(wú)標(biāo)記成分：常見的，意義一般的，分布較廣的。有標(biāo)記成分：反之。7.7Cognitive verus linguistic explanation 如何看待這些語(yǔ)言學(xué)解釋呢？alternative？ complementary？ It

52、 depends on whether linguistic universals and markedness are seen as exerting a direct effect on L2 acquisition or whether the linguistic universals and markedness are seen as exerting a direct effect on L2 acquisition. Chapter 8 Individual differences in L2 acquisition (從心理學(xué)角度探究二語(yǔ)習(xí)得的差異)The degree o

53、f anxiety they experience and their preparedness to take risks in learning and using L2. 8.1Language aptitude 1. 音位編碼能力Phonemic coding ability2. 語(yǔ)法敏感度 Grammatical language learning ability3. 歸納能力 Inductive language learning ability4. 機(jī)械學(xué)習(xí)能力 Rote learning ability 8.2Motivation 1. Instrumental motivat

54、ion 工具型動(dòng)機(jī)2. Integrative motivation 融入型動(dòng)機(jī)3. Resultative motivation結(jié)果型動(dòng)機(jī)4. Intrinsic motivation 本能動(dòng)機(jī)學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中，四種動(dòng)機(jī)相輔相成(1). They are complementary rather than as distinct and oppositional (2) Motivation is dynamic in nature.8.3Learning strategies The particular approaches or techniques that learners employ

55、 to try to learn an L2They can be behavioral: like repeating new words aloud to help you remember them.They can be mental: like, using the linguistic or situational context to infer the meaning of a new word.1. 認(rèn)知策略Cognitive strategies：個(gè)人學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)在心理上運(yùn)用他以前學(xué)得的知識(shí)經(jīng)驗(yàn)， 憑經(jīng)驗(yàn)去辨別，選擇，思維，分析，歸納，從而獲得新知識(shí)的一個(gè)方法Cognitive

56、strategies are those that are involved in the analysis, synthesis, or transformation of learning materials.eg：Recombination which involves constructing a meaningful sentence by recombining known elements of the L2 in a new way.2. 元認(rèn)知策略Meta-cognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring and evaluating learning.eg: selective attention（選擇注意）where the learner makes a conscious decision to attend to particular aspects of the input元認(rèn)知策略：主體將自己的認(rèn)知過(guò)程最為認(rèn)知和意識(shí)對(duì)象，并對(duì)認(rèn)知活動(dòng)的全過(guò)程進(jìn)行不斷地， 自覺地監(jiān)控和調(diào)節(jié)的執(zhí)行策略。3. 交際策略/情感