非言語交際和跨文化交際

1、Non-verbalcommunicationandinterculturalcommunicationAbstract:Languageisthetoolofcommunicationandcarrierofculture.Non-verbalcommunicationcaneffectivelycomplementverbalcommunication.Non-verbalcommunicationoftenhappensasverbalcommunicationtakesplace.Italsohasthesamecommunicativefunctionasverbalcommunic

2、ationdoes.Peopleonlyemphasizeverbalcommunicationwhiletheyusuallyneglectnon-verbalcommunicationwhichisofmuchimportanceininformationtransmission.Themainconcernsinthispaperincludetherelationbetweenverbalandnon-verbal,classification,feature,andfunctionofnon-verbalcommunication.Thewaysolvingintercultural

3、conflictsinnon-verbalcommunicationisalsodiscussedhere.Keywords:non-verbalcommunication;function;interculturalcommunication1. IntroductionLanguageisanecessaryandveryimportanttoolinhumancommunication.Whenpeopletalkaboutthecommunication,theyalwaysregardverbalcommunicationasakindofwaytocommunicate,butne

4、glectingthenon-verbalcommunication.Infact,verbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunicationarebothwaysforpeopletocommunicate.Comparingwithverbalcommunication,non-verbalcommunicationcantransferinformationandexpressthemeaninginabetterway.Thispapermainlytalkedabouttherelationbetweenverbalcommunicationandno

5、nverbalcommunication,thefunctionofnon-verbalandthefunctionofnon-verbalintheinterculturalcommunication.2. thenon-verbalcommunication2.1 Thedefinitionandclassificationofthenon-verbalcommunicationNon-verbalcommunication(NVC)isusuallyunderstoodastheprocessofcommunicationthroughsendingandreceivingwordles

6、smessages.Suchmessagescanbecommunicatedthroughgestubrye;bodylanguageorposture;byfacialexpressionandeyecontact.Objectcommunicationsuchasclothing,hairstylesorevenarchitecture;symbols.Speechmayalsocontainnon-verbalelementsknownasparalanguage,includingvoicequality,emotionandspeakingstyle,aswellasprosodi

7、cfeaturessuchasrhythm,intonationandstress.Likewise,writtentextshavenon-verbalelementssuchashandwritingstyle,spatialarrangementofwords,ortheuseofemoticons.Languageisthemostimportantwayinhumancommunication,butitisnottheonlywaytocommunicate.Forexample,sometimesweneedlotsofnon-verbalcommunicationsymbols

8、tohelpusunderstandwell.Infactverbalandnon-verbalcommunicationsarebothveryimportant.Someresearchersdividedthenon-verbalcommunicationintothreetypes;thefirstoneisthatpeoplejustshowthedynamicpostureinasilentway.Forexample,whenpeopleshowtheiragreementtheywilljustnodtheirheadsinsteadofsayingyestoothers.An

9、otherexample,smilingisalsoakindofnon-verbalcommunication;itcanexpressmanydifferentmeanings.Itcanshowthesatisfactionofsomethingoreventhepoliterefusal.Thesedependonthedifferentcontexts.Thesecondoneisstaticposture.Forexample,peoplewerestandingstraightorleaningonthechairorsittingontheflooretc.Thediffere

10、ntposturesofthestaticbodiesalsocanexpressdifferentmeaningsaccordingtothedifferentcontexts.Thethirdoneisakindofsoundswhichareproducedbyhumanbeingsbutnotverballanguage;itsakindofnon-verballanguage.Forexample,allkindsofsmiling,andthesighbothbelongtothethirdtype.Thosethreenon-verbalcommunicationsplayave

11、ryimportantwayinhumancommunicationsociety.2.2 Thecomparisonofverbalcommunicationwithnon-verbalcommunicationAsweallknow,verbalcommunicationisveryimportantinourreallife,however,non-verbalcommunicationalsoplaysanimportantroleindailylife.ThephoneticianDavidAbercrombieclaimedthatwespeakwithourorgans,butw

12、econversewithourentirebodies(Abercrombie1968),andweshallseeinwhatsensethisistrue.AndinMr.DaiWeidongsbooknamedANewConciseCourseonLinguisticforStudiesofEnglish,languagewasdefinedaslangueisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Shortasit,thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflangua

13、ge.Firstasall,languageisasystem.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Last,thetermhumaninthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman

14、-specific.Speechalsoreflectsthesocialrelationsbetweenthespeakersandaddressee,mostparticularlythepowerandsolidaritymanifestedinthatrelationship.Powerisself-explanatory,butsolidarityishardertodefine.Itconcernsthesocialdistancebetweenpeople-howmuchexperiencetheyhaveshared,howmanysocialcharacteristicsth

15、eyshare(religion,sex,age,regionoforigin,race,occupation,interest,etc.),howfartheyarepreparedtoshareintimacies,andotherfactors.Non-verbalbehaviorisinvolvedinthetwoaspectsofspeechconsideredinthesechapter-makingrelationsbetweenspeakerandaddresseeandthestructureofdiscourse;anditalsoinvolvedinthecommunic

16、ationofcontent,thatis,propositionsandreferents.Inthepart4we will discuss the non-verbal communication in interculturalcommunicationindetail.3. Thefunctionofnon-verbalcommunicationWhencommunicating,non-verbalmessagescaninteractwithverbalmessagesinthefollowingways:repeating,conflicting,complementing,s

17、ubstituting,regulating.1) Repeating"Repeating"consistsofusinggesturestostrengthenaverbalmessage,suchaspointingtotheobjectofdiscussion.2) ConflictingVerbalandnon-verbalmessageswithinthesameinteractioncansometimessendopposingorconflictingmessages.Apersonverballyexpressingastatementoftruthwhi

18、lesimultaneouslyfidgetingoravoidingeyecontactmayconveyamixedmessagetothereceiverintheinteraction.Conflictingmessagesmayoccurforavarietyofreasonsoftenstemmingfromfeelingsofuncertainty,ambivalence,orfrustration.Whenmixedmessagesoccur,non-verbalcommunicationbecomestheprimarytoolpeopleusetoattainadditio

19、nalinformationtoclarifythesituation;greatattentionisplacedonbodilymovementsandpositioningwhenpeopleperceivemixedmessagesduringinteractions.3) ComplementingAccurateinterpretationofmessagesismadeeasierwhennon-verbalandverbalcommunicationcomplementseachother.Non-verbalcuescanbeusedtoelaborateonverbalme

20、ssagestoreinforcetheinformationsentwhentryingtoachievecommunicativegoals;messageshavebeenshowntoberememberedwellwhennon-verbalsignalsaffirmtheverbalexchange.4) SubstitutingNon-verbalbehaviorissometimesusedasthesolechannelforcommunicationofamessage.Peoplelearntoidentifyfacialexpressions,bodymovements

21、,andbodypositioningascorrespondingwithspecificfeelingsandintentions.Non-verbalsignalscanbeusedwithoutverbalcommunicationtoconveymessages;whennon-verbalbehaviordoesnoteffectivelycommunicateamessage;verbalmethodsareusedtoenhanceunderstanding.5) RegulatingNon-verbalbehavioralsoregulatesourconversations

22、.Forexample,touchingsomeone'sarmcansignalthatyouwanttotalknextorinterrupt.Forexample,apersonwhoisverballyexpressingangermayaccenttheverbalmessagebyshakingafist.4. Non-verbalcommunicationininterculturalcommunication4.1. The definition of cultureAcultureisacollectionofbeliefs,habits,livingpatterns

23、,andbehaviorswhichareheldmoreorlessincommonbypeoplewhooccupyparticulargeographicarea.Cultureinfluencesallaspectsofourlives.Itinvolvessubjective一attitudes,values,beliefs,opinions,behaviorsandobjective-clothes,food,utensils,architectureelements.Weuseculturetoexplainsimilaritieswithinanddifferencesbetw

24、eengroupsofpeopleCultureisnotastaticentity,butisever-evolving;whatwecommonlyknowas"thegenerationgap“isaculturaldifferenceasitreferstodifferentwaysoflifeandbeingforpeoplewhoareraisedindifferentperiodsoftime.Cultureexistsonmultiplelevels,anditenhancessurvival.Culturesproviderulesforliving,telling

25、peoplehowtointeract,workandplaywitheachother.Cultureprovidesahierarchyfordecision-makingandsetsthestandardsforgroupcooperationanddivisionsoflabor.Withculturethereisorder;withoutculturethereischaos.Evenpeoplewhothinktheyhavenoculturehaveaculture;itisjusttheculturetobelievetheyhavenoculture.Ofallthepo

26、ssiblethingspeoplecoulddo,culturehelpstolimitwhatweshoulddoinordertosurviveintheenvironmentinwhichwelive.Cultureiscommunicatedacrossgenerations.And,culturebothenablesbehavior,allowingittobecreatedorinventedanditconstrainsandrestrictsit.4.1 ThedefinitionofinterculturalcommunicationInterculturalcommun

27、icationisaformofglobalcommunication.Itisusedtodescribethewiderangeofcommunicationproblemsthatnaturallyappearwithinanorganizationmadeupofindividualsfromdifferentreligious,social,ethnic,andeducationalbackgrounds.Interculturalcommunicationissometimesusedsynonymouslywithcross-culturalcommunication.Inthi

28、ssenseitseekstounderstandhowpeoplefromdifferentcountriesandculturesact,communicateandperceivetheworldaroundthem.Asaseparatenotion,itstudiessituationswherepeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundsinteract.Asidefromlanguage,interculturalcommunicationfocusesonsocialattributes,thoughtpatterns,andtheculture

29、sofdifferentgroupsofpeople.Italsoinvolvesunderstandingthedifferentcultures,languagesandcustomsofpeoplefromothercountries.Interculturalcommunicationplaysaroleinanthropologyculturalstudieslinguistics,psychologyandcommunicationstudiesInterculturalcommunicationcanbesimplydefinedascommunicationbetweenpeo

30、pleofdifferentcultures.Theneedforinterculturalunderstandingdoesnotbeginorendwithnationalboundaries.Onedoesnotnecessarilyneedtocrossanoceantohaveacross-culturalexperience,forvirtuallyeverycountryaroundtheworldisundergoingincreaseddiversitywithinitsownborders.Evenwithinourowncountry,communicationcanof

31、tenbesomewhatintercultural.4.2 .Non-verbalcommunicationininterculturalcommunicationJustasthispapermentioned,non-verbalcommunicationisnecessaryinourdailycommunication.Oneveryobviousaspectofnon-verbalbehaviorwhichhelpstoreflectpower-solidarityisthephysicaldistancebetweenthepeopleconcerned,thesubject-m

32、atterofproxemics(Pocheptsov1994).Itwouldbeasafehypothesisthatphysicaldistanceisproportionaltosocialdistanceinallcultures,sothatpeoplewhofeelcloseinspiritwillputthemselvesrelativelyneartoeachotherwheninteracting.Atoneendofthescalearecourtingcouples,andattheotherendimpersonalandformaloccasionswherespe

33、akersmaybelongdistancesfromtheiraddressees,asintheaters,orunabletoseethenatall,asonradioandtelevision.Whatvariesfromculturetocultureisthedistancewhichisthoughtappropriateforaparticulardegreeofsolidarity.Forexample,ArabsgenerallysetthedistancelowerthanAmericans.Thisclaimissupportedbyresearch(Watsonan

34、dGraves1966)inwhichcomparisonsweremadebetweenArabandAmericanstudentsinanAmericanuniversity.Thestudentswereaskedtoconverseinpairsinaroomwheretheycouldbeobservedwithouttheirknowledge,andrecordswerekeptoftheirmovementshowclosetoeachothertheysat,howtheyorientedthemselvestowardseachother,howmuchtheytouch

35、edeachother,howmuchtheylookedateachother,andhowloudlytheytalked.SixteenArabsandsixteenAmericanswerestudiedinthisway,withArabstalkingtoArabsandAmericanstoAmericans.Whentheresultswerecompareditwasfoundthat'ArabenfrontedeachothermoredirectlythanAmericanswhenconversing-,theysatclosertoeachother，they

36、weremorelikelytotoucheachother，theylookedeachothermoresquarelyintheeye，andconversedmoreloudlythanAmericans."Aswenoticed,suchculturaldifferencescanleadtoseriousmisunderstandings,anditiseasytoseehowphysicaldistancerelatestosolidarity-andpower-face.Weget(andgive)solidarity-facebyphysicalcontact(to

37、uching,stroking,grooming),andintimaciesoftheclosefamilyandbetweenloversaretheultimateinshowingacceptance,sothecloserwearethemorewecanbolstereachother-face.'ssolidarityOntheotherhand,beingphysicallyclosetoanotherpersonisalsoanintrusionontheirpersonalterritoryandathreattotheirpower-face.Whatisneed

38、edisaverydelicatebalancingact:toonearandweareintrusive,toofarandwearecold.Wedon'tmakethesedecisionsunaided,butlearnthenfromthosearoundus;thisisveryhelpfulwhenwearedealingwithourowngroup,butasourceofproblemwhendealingwithstrangers.Anotherkindofnon-verbalcommunicationthatisveryimportantforpower-so

39、lidarity(andothersociallyimportantemotions)iswhatwedowithourface-intheliteralsensethistime.Wegiveoutsocialsignalwithourmouths(smiling,showingdisgust),oureyes(eye-contact)andoureye-brows(frowning,showingsurprise).Thesesignalsareparticularlyinterestingandimportantbecausesomeofthemseemtobeuniversal(asD

40、arwinclaimedoverahundredyearsago).Inshort,whateverourgenesmay(ormaynot)doforourspokenlanguage;theyclearlyhavealotofinfluenceonthenon-verbalcommunicativeframeworkwithinwhichspeechtakesplace.Besides,non-verbalcommunicationalsohelpstomarkthestructureoftheinteraction.Oneofthemainkindsofstructureconsider

41、edwasthepatternofbehaviorassociatedwithentitiesandexits,wherenon-verbalbehaviorisjustasclearlypatternedasverbalbehavior.Someaspectsoftheformerarerelativelyconventionalized,suchashand-shaking,whichinsomeculturesisreplacedbynose-rubbingorsupplementedbykissingorembracing,accordingtotherelationbetweentheparticipants.InBritainhand-shakingseemstobeusedtoshowthatarelationisbeinggivenafreshstart,ratherthanasasignofintimacy.Thusitisusedtopatchupquarrelsbetweenfriends,orwhenoneisintroducedtoastranger,ortoanyonenotseenforalongtime.Inotherculturestherulesforsha