從另一個角度看教材-龔亞夫

1、從另一個角度看教材從另一個角度看教材龔亞夫龔亞夫 Overview Task-based language teaching Curriculum goals and objectives Task types Teaching vocabulary Critical thinking and reading Grammar teachingTraditionally Curriculum designers and materials writers took as their point of departure the question, What are the grammatical

2、, phonological, and lexical items to be taught? In other words, selection of classroom activities was driven by curriculum goals specified in phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical terms. Nunan (1991)Why task-based language teaching?Target task rationale: What is it that learners potentially or

3、actually need to do with the target language?Psycholinguistic rationale: What are the psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying second language acquisition, and how can these be activated in the classroom? Nunan (1991)Socio-cultural rationale: learning arises not through interaction but in interaction

4、Lantolf (2000)Why task-based language teaching? Tasks goals enable the program planner and materials writer to provide explicit links between the task and the broader curriculum it is designed to serve. 體現(xiàn)課程目標 The value of tasks is that they provide a purpose for the activity which goes beyond the p

5、ractice of language for its own sake. Nunan (1991)Psycholinguistic perspective A task is a device that guides learners to engage in certain types of information-processing that are believed to be important for effective language use and /or for language acquisition from some theoretical standpoint.

6、Tasks are seen as the external means by which we can influence the mental computations that learners make. These computations determine how effectively they communicate and how they acquire language. Ellis (2000, 2003) Why task-based language teaching? Mental computation: 詢問、確認、分類、推斷、區(qū)分、預測、總結(jié)、創(chuàng)造、讀圖、

7、反思、協(xié)商 以往的功能結(jié)構(gòu)方法是從語言系統(tǒng)的角度設(shè)計課程與教學內(nèi)容，任務型語言教學從學生學習的角度來思考 Tradition and the trend Tradition Grammatical, phonological and lexical items to be taught. The specification of these items set the parameters for the selection of classroom activities Trend Tasks are conceptualized in terms of the curriculum goa

8、ls, input data and activities or procedures which the learners undertake in the completion of the tasksMultidimensional curriculum The objectives of NEC: linguistic knowledge, language skills, cultural awareness, learning strategies and motivation and affective factors Student participation, develop

9、ment of critical thinking skills, problem-solving, interpersonal communication skills as well as cooperation Third generation tasks With third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies, they also aim to develop the personality of students t

10、hrough the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives, such as enhancing motivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills Littlewood (2001) Task types:Cognitive Classifying: Putting thin

11、gs that are similar together in the groups Predicting: Predicting what is to come in the learning processInducing: Looking for patterns and regularities Example: Study a conversation and discover the rule for forming the simple past tenseTaking notes: Writing down the important information in a text

12、 in your own wordsConcept mapping: Showing the main ideas in a text in the form of a mapInferencing: Using what you know to learn something newDiscriminating: Distinguishing between the main idea and the supporting informationDiagramming: Using information from a text to label a diagramTask types: I

13、nterpersonal Co-operating: Sharing ideas and learning with other students Example: Work in small groups to read a text and complete a tableRole Playing: Predicting to be somebody else and using the language for the situation you are in Example: You are a reporter. Use the information from the readin

14、g to interview the writerTask types: LinguisticConversational patterns: Using expressions to start conversations and keep them going. Example: Match formulaic expressions to situations Practicing: Doing controlled exercise to improve knowledge and skillsUsing context: Using the surrounding context t

15、o guess the meaning of an unknown word, phrase, or conceptSummarizing: Picking out and presenting the major points in a text in summary formSelective listening: Listening for key information without trying to understand every wordSkimming: Reading quickly to get a general idea of a text Task types:A

16、ffectivePersonalizing: Learners share their own opinions, feelings and ideas about a subject. Example: Read a letter from a friend in need and give adviceSelf-evaluating: Thinking about how well you did on a learning task, and rating yourself on a scaleReflecting: Thinking about ways you learn bestT

17、ask types: CreativeBrainstorming: Thinking of as many new words and ideas as one can Example: Work in groups and think of a many occupations as you can Nunan (2004)Assessment Criterion-referenced assessment: Criterion-referencing occurs when learners performance is described in relation to an explic

18、it stated standards; e.g. a persons ability may be reported in terms of a can-do statement describing the kinds of tasks he or she can perform using the target language. Brindley (2001)Task and performance It seems that task accomplishment is the ultimate focus for evaluating human performance. It f

19、ollows that L2 performance assessment and task-based approaches to language teaching and assessment will likely share a greatly deal of theoretical and practical common ground. Norris (1998 )Tasks The language testers have increasingly recognized the value of tasks for assessing learners capacity to

20、 communicate in an L2.-Has a favourable washback effect ;-Enables assessment to be more easily integrated into the learning process;-Provides learners with useful diagnostic feedback on progress and achievement Ellis (2003)Task-based testing Task-based testing is seen as a way of achieving a close c

21、orrelation between test performance; i.e. what the testee does during the test, and the criterion performance, i.e. what the testee has to do in the real world, and thus ensuring the validity of the assessment. Ellis (2003)如何設(shè)計教案與任務如何設(shè)計教案與任務 以行為動詞來描述目標: 1 能力表現(xiàn)（performance),即教學目標應該列出 學習者需要能夠做什么； 2 條件

22、（condition），即能力表現(xiàn)的條件與環(huán)境； 3 標準（criterion），即目標應該描述學習者什么樣的表現(xiàn)是可以接受的。Nunan（2007）也認為，在能力描述的標準中，目標通常包含三個組成部分：一是能力表現(xiàn)或任務描述(performance or task statement)。這一部分主要描述學習者能夠做的事情。二是對于語言能力表現(xiàn)或完成任務條件的描述。即在何種情境下(circumstances)和條件下（conditions）學生能完成這些任務。第三部分是對于完成任務標準的描述。 范例 在要求完成一個口語任務時，學習者要能對一個英語為母語的人說出他/她的名字，地址和電話號碼，能拚

23、出自己的名字、街道和城市的名稱，使得考試者能記錄下來，達到100%的準確。 在一個真實的交際情境下，（條件），學生將詢問所購物品的價格（任務）。學生所說的話可以使一個具有體諒心態(tài)的英語為本族語的人可以理解（標準）。Pre-task phase Three purposes:-to serve to introduce new language that learners can use while performing the task; -to mobilize existing linguistic resources;-to ease processing load, and to pu

24、sh learners to interpret tasks in more demanding ways Skehan (1998)Pre-task phaseNon-task preparation activities - brain storming 大腦風暴大腦風暴- mind map 思維導圖思維導圖 Addressing linguistic demands of a task-Predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topic- Pla

25、nning/ strategic planning Teaching vocabulary Readers need to work out which words belong together and form units of meaning a phrasing or chunking process. They also need to recognize key words and phrases. Exemplar-based system “ 以范例為基礎(chǔ)的” Rule-based system “以規(guī)則為基礎(chǔ)的” Skehan (1996); Mitchel &Mar

26、tin (2004) Multi-word units-“chunks of language” , “l(fā)exical chunks” Collocations 習慣搭配 Phrasal verbs 常用短語 Sentence frames 句子結(jié)構(gòu) Social formulae 社交套話 Discourse markers 語段連接詞Multiword units The most fundamental guiding principle (for) those who are anxious to be proficient in foreign conversation is thi

27、s: Memorizing perfectly the largest number of common and useful word-groups! Palmer (1925) As a way of quickly developing fluency and of picking up native-like expressions, groups of words should be learned as units. Nation (2003)Language acquisition research Lexico-semantic theory a net work of ass

28、ociations, a web-like structure of interconnected links (Aitchison, 1987) Connect the word with already known words, the links is created, the learning takes place (Skmen ) 當詞匯增加到一定程度時，頭腦就會建立一個系統(tǒng)，使詞匯有機地組織起來，以便提取-Creating word web - Book 1 Unit 4 p.28 Promote a deep level of processing- Better learni

29、ng takes place when a deeper level of semantic processing is required because the words are encoded with elaboration Craik & Lockhart (1972) - When students are asked to manipulate words, relate them to other words and to their own experiences, and then justify their choices, these words associa

30、tions are reinforced. Skmen Semantic feature analysisAffectiveWith wonderBecause unexpected Because difficult to believeSo as to cause confusionsurprise + +astonish + +amaze + +Classroom techniques and tasks Create a range of 5-16 encounters with a word in order for student to truly acquire it Dicti

31、onary work: Skmen Semantic elaboration Meaning-focused input activities Deliberate learning activities Meaning-focused output activities Fluency activitiesCritical thinking skills Critical thinking brings conscious awareness, skills, and standards to the process of observing, analyzing, reasoning, e

32、valuating, reading, and communicating. Mayfield (2007) Book 1 Unit 5 - important people vs. great peopleCritical thinking 22 comprehension strategies Drawing conclusions Understanding cause and effect Making connections Comparing view points Evaluating ideas Reading between the lines Making judgment

33、s22 comprehension strategies (cont.) Making comparisons Interpreting meaning Making inferences Comparing characters Reading a map Interpreting graphs and charts Making calculations Examining reasons22 comprehension strategies (cont.) Separating facts from opinion Identifying the main idea Organizing

34、 information Sequencing Summarizing Recalling details Synthesizing Making judgmentsHighlight the three pieces of informationin the text that you think everyoneshould know:Most important_Second most important_Least important_Developing alternative solutions With a group, brainstorm three different so

35、lutions to .s problem.A _B _C _ When you brainstorm, everyone contribute ideas. Write down every idea. .Examining reasons Why do you think its necessary in this experiment to collect?_ How do you think the author says to use?_ Why do you think?_Consciousness-raising tasks (CR)1 There is an attempt t

36、o isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention2 The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature and they may also be provided with an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature.3 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand th

37、e targeted feature.4 learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure. Ellis (1991)The post-task phaseThree major pedagogical goals:-提供再做任務的機會提供再做任務的機會（to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task）-反思任務是怎樣完成的反思任務是怎樣完成的（to encourage reflec

38、tion on how the task was performed）-關(guān)注語言的形式關(guān)注語言的形式（to encourage attention to form） Reflecting on the task Present a report on how they did the task and what they decided or discovered oral or written Summary the outcome of the task Reflect or evaluate of their own performance (fluency, complicity or

39、 accuracy) Metacognitive strategies 元認知策略元認知策略(planning, monitoring and evaluating) The post-task phase Reviewing of learner errors反思錯誤 Consciousness-raising tasks語法意識 Production-practice activities操練活動 Noticing activities 注意語言的準確Reviewing of learner errors Teacher moves from group to group to listen and note down the errors Address these errors with