Ddvwfsa胡壯麟語言學筆記無私分享

1、秋風清，秋月明,落葉聚還散,寒鴉棲復驚。胡壯麟語言學筆記無私分享（全；免“支持”版：）語言學教程重難點學習提示 第一章語言的性質(zhì) 語言的定義：語言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多產(chǎn)性、移位、文化傳遞和互換性）；語言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、詢問、表達主觀感情、喚起對方的感情和言語行為）；語言的起源（神授說，人造說，進化說）等。 第二章 語言學 語言學定義；研究語言的四大原則（窮盡、一致、簡潔、客觀）；語言學的基本概念（口語與書面語、共時與歷時、語言與言學、語言能力與言行運用、語言潛勢與語言行為）；普通語言學的分支（語音、音位、語法、句法、語義）；語言學的應(yīng)用（語言學與語言教學、語言與社會、語

2、言與文字、語言與心理學、人類語言學、神經(jīng)語言學、數(shù)理語言學、計算語言學）等。 第三章 語音學 發(fā)音器官的英文名稱；英語輔音的發(fā)音部位和發(fā)音方法；語音學的定義；發(fā)音語音學；聽覺語音學；聲學語音學；元音及輔音的分類；嚴式與寬式標音等。 第四章 音位學 音位理論；最小對立體；自由變異；互補分布；語音的相似性；區(qū)別性特征；超語段音位學；音節(jié)；重音（詞重音、句子重音、音高和語調(diào)）等。 第五章 詞法學 詞法的定義；曲折詞與派生詞；構(gòu)詞法（合成與派生）；詞素的定義；詞素變體；自由詞素；粘著詞素（詞根，詞綴和詞干）等。 第六章 詞匯學 詞的定義；語法詞與詞匯詞；變詞與不變詞；封閉詞與開放詞；詞的辨認；習語與搭

3、配。 第七章句法 句法的定義；句法關(guān)系；結(jié)構(gòu)；成分；直接成分分析法；并列結(jié)構(gòu)與從屬結(jié)構(gòu)；句子成分；范疇（性，數(shù)，格）；一致；短語，從句，句子擴展等。 第八章 語義學 語義的定義；語義的有關(guān)理論；意義種類（傳統(tǒng)、功能、語用）；里奇的語義分類；詞匯意義關(guān)系（同義、反義、下義）；句子語義關(guān)系。 第九章 語言變化 語言的發(fā)展變化（詞匯變化、語音書寫文字、語法變化、語義變化）； 第十章語言、思維與文化 語言與文化的定義；薩丕爾-沃夫假說；語言與思維的關(guān)系；語言與文化的關(guān)系；中西文化的異同。 第十一章語用學 語用學的定義；語義學與語用學的區(qū)別；語境與意義；言語行為理論（言內(nèi)行為、言外行為和言后行為）；合作

4、原則。 1.1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and t

5、he object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “l(fā)ivre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but conventi

6、on. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only lea

7、rn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 1.2.What are design features of language? “Design features” here refer to the defining p

8、roperties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability 1.3.What is arbitrariness? By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical con

9、nection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”,

10、 “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can

11、say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree. 1.4.What is duality? Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful uni

12、ts (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other

13、of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible f

14、or a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour. 1.5.What is productivity? Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in ones nativ

15、e language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Dif

16、ferent from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky). 1.6.What is displacement? “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are no

17、t present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred

18、, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldnt be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bees system, nonetheless, has a small

19、 share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share. 1.7.What is cultural transmission? This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity f

20、or language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “l(fā)anguage acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dogs barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire lan

21、guage. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolfs roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language. 1.8.What is interchangeability? Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a produ

22、cer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different

23、things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to li

24、sten. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tel

25、l which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening. 1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific? First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Lets borrow C. F. Hockets Chart

26、that compares human language with some animals systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice

27、and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken b

28、ack and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7) 1.10.What functions does language have? Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool

29、of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU

30、 Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396). 1. 11What is the phatic function? The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in Englis

31、h and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you dont say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you dont answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship. 1.12. What is the dire

32、ctive function? The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searles “i

33、ndrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!” 1.13.What is the informative function? Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characteriz

34、ed by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grices “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all. 1.14.What is the inte

35、rrogative function? When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “Id like to know you better.” Th

36、is may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the readers/listeners answer. 1.15.What is the expressive function? The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or

37、 attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “Im sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or fal

38、sehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speakers own attitudes. 1.16.What is the evocative function? The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, anta

39、gonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., y

40、ou may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. Thats also the case with the other way round. 1.17.What is the performative function? This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On

41、 certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do f

42、or the construction. The judges imprisonment sentence, the presidents war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austins speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-278). 1.18.What is linguistics? “Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one

43、 language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it

44、 changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societie

45、s or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22) 1.19.What makes linguistics a science? Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system

46、. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity.

47、 Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Eco

48、nomy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics re

49、search. 1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics? The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches : phonet

50、ics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc. 1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies? The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synch

51、rony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range

52、 or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27). 1.22.What is speech and what is writing? No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existe

53、d long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language,

54、 writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so tha

55、t people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern lingui

56、stic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore. 1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” i

57、f it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly d

58、escriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to

59、be explained also. 1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole? F. de Saussure refers “l(fā)angue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speakin