語言學期末復習資料

1、精選優(yōu)質文檔-傾情為你奉上Chapter 1：Introduction1、Linguistics（語言學） is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(to observe and collect language factsformulates some hypotheses about the language structurefully prove their validity)2、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human comm

2、unication(語言是一套用于人類交流的任意的口語系統(tǒng)).3、General linguistics（通用語言學）：the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4、Phonetics（語言學），morphology（音位），syntax（形態(tài)），semantics（句法），pragmatics（語用），sociolinguistics（社會語言學），psycholinguistics（心理語言學），applied linguistics（應用語言學）5、Prescriptive（規(guī)定的）vs. D

3、escriptive（描寫的）Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using l

4、anguage, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.6、Synchronic（共時的） vs. Diachronic（歷時的）Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. The description o

5、f a language as it changes through time is a diachronic. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 7、Langue（語言）vs. Parole（言語）The distinction between langue and parole was made by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the

6、 early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system (抽象的語言系統(tǒng))shared by all the members of a speech community（言語社區(qū)）, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 8、Competence（語言能力） vs. Performance（言語行為）It was proposed by the Americ

7、an linguist N. CHOMSKY in the late 1950s. Chomsky（喬姆斯基） defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.9、while Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar, they differ at least

8、 in that Saussure（索緒爾） took a sociological（社會邏輯學） view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky（喬姆斯基） looks at language from a psychological（心理邏輯學） point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10、Design features of langua

9、ge（區(qū)別性特征）：Arbitrariness（任意性this means that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds, on the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words 擬聲詞and some

10、compound words混合詞 ）productivity（能產性），duality（二重性），displacement（移位），cultural transmission（文化傳遞）11、Functions of language（語言的功能） Descriptive function（描寫功能），expressive function（表達功能），social function（社會功能） Jakobson（雅各布遜）：emotive（表情功能），conative（意動功能），referential（指稱功能），poetic（組詩功能），phatic communion（寒暄功能），m

11、etalinguistic（元語言功能） Halliday（韓禮德）：ideational（概念功能），interpersonal（人際功能），textual（語篇功能）Chapter 2：Phonology1、Phonetics（語音學）：is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distin

12、ct but related points of view. First, it studies the sounds from speakers point of view, that is to say, how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearers point of view, that is to say, how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it

13、studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves(聲波), the physical（物理方式） means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. The three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics（發(fā)音語言學）, auditory phonetics（聽覺語言學）, and acoustic phonetics （聲學語言學）re

14、spectively（各自的）. 2、Phonology（音位學）：aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.3、Phone（音素）：is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）：is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value.Allophones（

15、音位變體）：The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.(同一音位在不同語言環(huán)境中的不同出現形式)4、Phonemic contrast（音位對立）：If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Complementary distribution（互補分布）：if the

16、y are allophones of same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Minimal pair（最小對立體）：the two sounds then represent different phonemes, an easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.（when two dif

17、ferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings ,the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 當兩個詞，除了出現在同一位置上的音外，其余的音都一樣，那么這兩個詞就構成了一個最小的對立體）5、Organs of speech（言語器官）： Pharyngeal cavity（咽腔），oral cavity（口腔），nasal cavity（鼻腔）6、Difference between phonolo

18、gy and phonetics Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspec of language-the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages., how they are produ

19、ced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they posses, how they can be classified. Phonology, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication7、Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）-stress，tone, int

20、onation The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasergmental features.Chapter 3：Morphology1、Morphology（詞素）： refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.2、Open class words（開放詞類）：nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs

21、make up the largest part of vocabulary, they are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.（不斷有新詞加入）Closed class words（封閉詞類）：conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “

22、functional” words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words is have been referred to as closed class words.（很少有新詞加入）3、Free morpheme（自由詞素）：a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme（粘著詞素）：a morpheme that must be attached to another

23、one.4、Derivational morpheme（派生詞素）：morphemes which form new words or change the grammatical class of word.Inflectional morpheme（屈折詞素）：bound morphemes which signify tense, number, case （格）and so on.Do-doesBoy- boysMorphological (形態(tài)學的)rules thus reveal the relations between words and provide the means

24、for forming new words. It is these rules that enable people to coin new words, such hair spray（發(fā)膠）, tea ceremony, space walk（太空漫步）, and teach-in（宣講會 座談會）. compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language. Chapter 4：Syntax1、Syntax（句法） is a br

25、anch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar function in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.2、Major lexical categories（主要詞匯范疇） are Noun, Verb, Adjectiv

26、e and Preposition.Minor lexical categories（次要詞匯范疇）are Determiner（限定詞）, Degree word（程度詞）s, Qualifier（修飾詞）, Auxiliary and Conjunction（助動詞和連詞）.Three criteria to determine a words category：meaning, inflection and distribution.3、Phrase elements：head（中心語），specifiers（標志語），complement（補足語）4、Deep structure：fo

27、rmed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties, is called deep structure（or D-structure）.Surface structure：corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure（or S-structure）.5、Chomsky：“G

28、enerative Transformational grammar”生產轉換語法Complement phrase: the sentence introduced by the complementizer（補語化成分） is called a complement clause. Thus the whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase（補語短語）(shorted as CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase

29、is embedded is called Matrix clause(主句).However, it is a misleading to assume that a words category can be told straightforward from its meaning. Firstly, nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities. Secondly, some words such as love and hate which indicate actions t

30、end to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns. Thirdly, words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories. For example, be aware of and know about can have the same meaning but they belong to different word categories. Chapter 5：Semantics1、Semantics（語義學）：can

31、be simply defined as the study of meaning.2、View concerning the study of meaning：the naming theory（命名論），the conceptualist view（概念觀），contextualism（語境觀），behaviorism（行為觀） Semantic triangle or triangle of significance（語義三角）3、sense（抽象意義）：is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the co

32、llection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized（非語境變化）.Reference（具體意義）：means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4、Major sense relations：synonymy（同義現象

33、），polysemy（一詞多義），homonymy（同音/形異義），hyponymy（上下義關系），antonymy（反義詞）5、Componential analysis（成分分析法）：is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.Predication analysis（述謂結構分析法）：a way to analyze sentence meaning.First, the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of theMeaning o

34、f all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not be worked out by adding up the meaning of all its constituent words. For example, the two sentence: “the dog bit the man” and “the man bit the dog”，through consisting of exactly the same words, differ wildly in what they mean. In this r

35、espect, a sentence is different from a word, the meaning of which is the sum total of all its components, I.e. its semantic features. Chapter 6：Pragmatics1、Pragmatics（語用學）：is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2、Context（語境）：it is generally consid

36、ered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.3、Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning話語意義（區(qū)別）：The meaning of abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the reali

37、zation of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 4、Speech act theory（言語行為理論）：it was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50s of the 20th century. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communi

38、cation. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”Traditionally philosophers were interested in the truth-value of sentence,i.e. how to judge whether a sentence is true or false; they believed that a statement was used either to state a fact or to describe a state of affairs

39、. Although a philosopher himself, Austin expressed doubt about this assumption because he found that some statements were not used either to state or to describe, they could not be judged as true or false; rather they were used by the speaker to do something. Thus he made a distinction between what

40、they called “constatives”(述事話語) and“performatives” (行事話語)5、Locutionary act（言內行為）：is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act（言外行為）：is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the

41、 act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act（言后行為）：is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.E.g. You have the door wide open.6、Cooperative Principle（CP）：Gri

42、ce（格賴斯） The maxim of quantity（數量準則）：Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of quality（質量準則）：Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack ade

43、quate evidence. The maxim of relation（關聯準則）：Be relevant. The maxim of manner（方式準則）：Avoid obscurity of expression; Avoid ambiguity. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly.Chapter 7：Language Change1、Historical linguistics（歷史語言學）：as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the

44、 description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.2、Addition of new words（新詞的添加）：coinage（創(chuàng)新詞），clipped words（縮略詞），blending（緊縮詞），acronyms（詞首字母），back-formation（逆構詞），functional shift（功能轉變），borrowing（外來詞）3、Semantic change（語義變化）：semantic broadening（語義擴展），semantic narrowing（語義縮小），semantic shift（語義轉換）Chapter 8：Language and Society1、Speech community（言語社團）：The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech comm