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1、內分泌的分子生物學第1頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 內分泌系統(tǒng)內分泌腺臟器內分泌組織激素體液調節(jié)系統(tǒng)(包括旁分泌、自分泌)代謝過程臟器功能生長發(fā)育生殖衰老Endocrine System第2頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一第3頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一內分泌學發(fā)展三階段腺體內分泌學 Organic Endocrinology組織內分泌學 Histological Endocrinology分子內分泌學 Moleculer Endocrinology第4頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期
2、一腺體內分泌學觀察切除內分泌腺前、后生理生化變化將內分泌腺中提取的有效成分補充給切除了內分泌腺的動物,觀察其恢復情況從內分泌腺提取激素,了解其化學結構,制備同類物與拮抗物第5頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一組織內分泌學放免的創(chuàng)建,可測量微量激素(1960年 Yalow 首次用放免法測量血漿胰島素)獲1977年諾貝爾獎免疫熒光顯微技術,了解激素分布、分泌發(fā)現某些組織器官分泌激素:心臟第6頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一分子內分泌學激素及其受體的基因基因的表達、轉錄、翻譯及其調控基因缺失、插入基因重組技術人工合成激素激素作用機制激素與細胞代謝、增
3、生、分化、凋亡等第7頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一第8頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一細胞信息傳遞方式 通過相鄰細胞的直接接觸 通過細胞分泌各種化學物質來調節(jié)其他細胞的代謝和功能信息物質(signal molecules)第9頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一跨膜信號轉導的一般步驟特定的細胞釋放信息物質信息物質經擴散或血循環(huán)到達靶細胞與靶細胞的受體特異性結合受體對信號進行轉換并啟動細胞內信使系統(tǒng)靶細胞產生生物學效應第10頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一(一)神經遞質 又稱突觸分泌信號(syn
4、aptic signal) 根據細胞分泌信息物質的方式,將細胞間信息物質分為四類:(二) 內分泌激素 又稱內分泌信號(endocrine signal)(三)局部化學介質 又稱旁分泌信號(paracrine signal (四)氣體信號 (Gas signal)第11頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一激素的分泌方式內分泌旁分泌自分泌第12頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一激素的種類Hormones 肽類/蛋白類激素 (Protein or peptide) : ACTH,LH, FSH, PHT, TSH, Insulin ,Glucagon,
5、IGFs氨基酸衍生物(Amino Acid derivatives): 兒茶酚胺類(腎上腺素、去甲腎上腺素)脂肪酸衍生物(Fatty acid derivatives ): 前列腺素類、視黃酸 膽固醇衍生物(Cholesterol derivatives ): 考的松, 醛固酮、1,25(OH)2 D3性激素第13頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一激素的作用機制 與膜受體結合 G蛋白偶聯 發(fā)揮生物效應 (肽類激素、生物胺、前列腺素) 與膜受體結合 受體自身磷酸化 發(fā)揮生物學效應 (酪氨酸激酶) (生長因子家族、Insulin , IGFs)與核受體結合 與DNA特異序列
6、結合 功能蛋白轉錄 (甾體類激素)激素是第一信使第14頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一激素的作用機制激素信息在細胞內的信號傳導Coris: 發(fā)現了磷酸化酶的可逆磷酸化 (無活性的磷酸化酶b/有活性的磷酸化酶a之間的互變) 獲得1951年諾貝爾獎。Sutherland: 成功分離和確定的腺苷酸環(huán)化酶和磷酸二酯酶 (cAMP合成與分解的兩個關鍵酶) 提出了激素作用的第二信使學說 獲得1971年諾貝爾生理醫(yī)學獎。Krebs & Fisher: 于60年代末發(fā)現蛋白激酶A(PKA) (依賴cAMP , 刺激多種底物蛋白磷酸化) 闡明了PKA啟動的磷酸化和去磷酸化途徑。 獲得1
7、992年諾貝爾生理醫(yī)學獎。 第15頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一cAMP-蛋白激酶途徑ATPcAMP蛋白激酶A蛋白質或酶磷酸化酶活性改變 基因轉錄加快 蛋白質合成加速生物效應AMP磷酸二酯酶RGAC第16頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 使有關蛋白或酶類的絲氨酸、蘇氨酸殘基磷酸化NOCOGCPKGGCG蛋白GTPcGMP:激素(心鈉素)R胞 膜 cGMP-蛋白激酶G(PKG)途徑主要生理效應:血管平滑肌松弛增加尿鈉,促進鈉的排出降低血壓第17頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一受體型TPK:非受體型TPK第18頁,共9
8、9頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一類固醇激素與甲狀腺素通過胞內受體調節(jié)生理過程第19頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一MCR(代謝清除率) of some hormones HormoneHalf-lifeAmines2-3 minThyroid hormones: T4 T36.7 days0.75 daysPolypeptides4-40 minProteins15-170 minSteroids4-120 min第20頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine dise
9、ase由激素缺乏、過量或抵抗引起的內分泌疾病Endocrine disorders result from hormone deficiency, hormone excess or hormone resistance 第21頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一由于感染、壞死、腫瘤的物理性壓縮以及自身免疫性疾病導致的分泌腺破壞引起的激素缺乏 Deficiency usually is due to destructive process occurring at gland in which hormone is producedinfection, infarctio
10、n, physical compression by tumor growth, autoimmune attackType I Diabetes內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine disease第22頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一由于遺傳缺陷(激素基因缺失或突變),導致激素前體的斷裂、特異性酶缺乏(甾體類激素或甲狀腺素),引起激素合成減少 Deficiency can also arise from genetic defects in hormone productiongene deletion or mutation, fail
11、ure to cleave precursor, specific enzymatic defect (steroid or thyroid hormones) Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia先天性腎上腺增生(癥) 內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine disease第23頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia先天性腎上腺增生(癥) 21-羥化酶缺乏 21-羥化酶缺乏對膽固醇的代謝發(fā)生哪些變化?第24頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一
12、受體的滅活性突變導致激素缺乏 Inactivating mutations of receptors can cause hormone deficiency雄激素不敏感綜合征(睪丸女性化綜合征)(Testicular Feminization Syndrome)內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine disease第25頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一由于疾病引起的激素分泌過多 Hormone excess usually results in disease 腺體分泌過量或非內分泌組織的分泌導致激素生成 過量 Hormone may be
13、 overproduced by gland that normally secretes it, or by a tissue that is not an endocrine organ. 內分泌腺腫瘤引起激素分泌過量 Endocrine gland tumors produce hormone in an unregulated manner. 庫興(氏)綜合征(Cushings Syndrome)內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine disease第26頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一使用外源性激素導致體內激素過量。如糖皮質激素或合
14、成代謝類激素 Exogenous ingestion of hormone is the cause of hormone excessfor example, glucocorticoid excess or anabolic steroid abuse 內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine disease第27頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一受體數量和功能的異常引起內分泌異常 Alterations in receptor number and function result in endocrine disorders比較常見的是激素
15、水平的異常增高引起可利用受體的數量減少 Most commonly, an aberrant increase in the level of a specific hormone will cause a decrease in available receptors Type II diabetes內分泌疾病的機制 Mechanisms of endocrine disease第28頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一糖尿病的分子機制Molecular mechanism of Diabetes mellitus(DM) 第29頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,1
16、8點46分,星期一Definition: DM is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action or both.定義:糖尿病是一組由于胰島素不足或和胰島素作用缺陷(抵抗)而導致以血糖增高為特征的代謝性疾病。第30頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一1.History of Diabetes(糖尿
17、病的歷史) 醫(yī)生發(fā)現糖尿病的癥狀已有幾千年的歷史 Physicians have observed the effects of diabetes for thousands of years. For much of this time, little was known about this fatal disease that caused wasting away of the body(消瘦), extreme thirst(口渴), and frequent urination(尿頻). 第31頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一糖尿病的一種明顯的表現是葡萄糖
18、尿,是糖尿病的一個診斷指標 One of the effects of diabetes is the presence of glucose in the urine (glucosuria). Ancient Hindu writings, many thousands of years old, document how black ants and flies were attracted to the urine of diabetics. The Indian physician Sushruta in 400 B.C. described the sweet taste of u
19、rine from affected individuals, and for many centuries to come, the sweet taste of urine was key to diagnosis.第32頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 公元250年左右,第一次使用“diabetes” 描述糖尿病 Around 250 B.C., the name “diabetes” was first used. It is a Greek word that means “to syphon(虹吸)”, reflecting how diabetes se
20、emed to rapidly drain fluid from the affected individual. 完整的“diabetes mellitus” 在1674年確定。 The complete term “diabetes mellitus” was coined in 1674 by Thomas Willis。Mellitus is Latin for honey, which is how Willis described the urine of diabetics (“as if imbued with honey and sugar”).第33頁,共99頁,2022年
21、,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 糖尿病之謎的一個突破是出現在1889年。德國醫(yī)生Joseph von Mering 和Oskar Minkowski手術切除狗的胰腺后,狗立即出現糖尿病。 A breakthrough in the puzzle of diabetes came in 1889. German physicians Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski surgically removed the pancreas from dogs. The dogs immediately developed diabetes. Now that
22、a link was established between the pancreas gland and diabetes, research focused on isolating the pancreatic extract that could treat diabetes.第34頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 Many great physiologists had tried and failed to isolate an internal secretion from the pancreas. Dr. Frederick Banting took
23、 up the challenge of isolating a pancreatic extract, he was met with much skepticism. 第35頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Banting, a surgeon, persisted and in May 1921, he began work in the laboratory of Professor John Macloed in Toronto, Canada. Charles Best, a medical student at the time, worked as hi
24、s assistant.第36頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 1921年,用胰腺提取物成功降低切除胰腺的狗的血糖。 In July 1921, a dog that had had its pancreassurgically removed was injected with an extract collected from a duct-tied dog. In the two hoursthat followed the injection, the blood sugar level of the dog fell, and its condition i
25、mproved.第37頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Dr. J. Collip,生物化學學家,繼續(xù)改善胰腺提取物的純度,隨后,Best進行提取工作。Dr. J. Collip, a biochemist, was drafted to continue improving the purity of the pancreas extract, and later, Best carried on this work.第38頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一到1922年,成功應用胰島素治療第一例糖尿病病人。 It wasnt until 192
26、2 that the first patient was successfully treated with insulin.第39頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Four scientists contributed to the discovery of insulinJ. CollipJohn MacloedCharles BestFrederick Banting第40頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一In 1923, Banting and Macloed were awarded the Nobel Prize for the di
27、scovery of insulin.BantingMacloed第41頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Cinema: “Glory enough for all”(共同的榮譽)光榮歲月 第42頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一葡萄糖的代謝概況(Overview of Glucose Metabolism) Glucose is an essential fuel for the body. The amount of glucose in the bloodstream is regulated by many hormones, the m
28、ost important being insulin.血糖受很多激素調節(jié),其中最重要的是胰島素。 第43頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一第44頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin is released when glucose is abundant and stimulates the following(胰島素的作用)促進: muscle and fat cells to remove glucose from the blood(肌肉細胞核脂肪細胞從血液中攝取葡萄糖 cells to breakdown glucose,
29、releasing its energy in the form of ATP (via glycolysis and the citric acid cycle)(分解葡萄糖和提供能量)第45頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 the liver and muscle to store glucose as glycogen (short-term energy reserve)(肝和肌肉細胞合成糖原) adipose tissue to store glucose as fat (long-term energy reserve)(葡萄糖轉變?yōu)橹荆?cells t
30、o use glucose in protein synthesis(在蛋白質的合成過程中利用葡萄糖)胰島素的作用第46頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 When the amount of glucose in the blood increases, e.g., after a meal, it triggers the release of the hormone insulin from the pancreas. Insulin stimulates muscle and fat cells to remove glucose from the blood
31、and stimulates the liver to metabolize glucose, causing the blood sugar level to decrease to normal levels第47頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 Glucagon(胰高血糖素) is the main hormone opposing the action of insulin and is released when food is scarce第48頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一 Changes in blood levels of
32、 glucose, insulin, and glucagon after a carbohyrate-rich meal (ingested at time 0 minutes).第49頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一The Story of InsulinInsulin Synthesis(胰島素的合成)Insulin Structure(胰島素的結構)Insulin secretion(胰島素的分泌)Insulin Receptor(胰島素受體)Insulin Action(胰島素的作用)第50頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insul
33、in Synthesis第51頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin StructureIn 1958, Frederick Sanger was awarded his first Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the sequence of the amino acids that make up insulin. This marked the first time that a protein had had the order of its amino acids (the primary sequ
34、ence) determined./nobel/chemistry/1958a.html第52頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin is composed of two chains of amino acids named chain A (21 amino acids) and chain B (30 amino acids) that are linked together by two disulfide bridges. There is a 3rd disulfide bridge within the A chain that links th
35、e 6th and 11th residues of the A chain together第53頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin secretionRising levels of glucose inside the pancreatic cells trigger the release of insulin胰腺細胞內葡萄糖水平的升高觸發(fā)胰島素釋放第54頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一1. Glucose is transported into the beta cell by type 2 glucose transp
36、orters (GLUT2). Once inside, the first step in glucose metabolism is the phosphorylation of glucose to produce glucose-6-phosphate. This step is catalyzed by glucokinase-it is the rate-limiting step in glycolysis.葡萄糖6-磷酸葡萄糖葡萄糖激酶第55頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一2. As glucose metabolism proceeds, ATP i
37、s produced in the mitochondria.葡萄糖代謝過程中,線粒體產生ATP第56頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一3.The increase in the ATP:ADP ratio closes ATP-gated potassium channels in the beta cell membrane.Positively charged potassium ions (K+ ) are now prevented from leaving the beta cell.細胞內ATP:ADP比例增加,關閉細胞ATP-鉀通道,防止帶正電的鉀離子離
38、開細胞第57頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一4.The rise in positive charge inside the beta cell causes depolarization.細胞內正電荷的增加引起細胞去極化第58頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一5.Voltage-gated calcium channels open, allowing calcium ions (Ca2+ ) to flood into the cell.鈣離子通道開放,使細胞外的鈣離子進入細胞內第59頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期
39、一6.The increase in intracellular calcium concentration triggers the secretion of insulin via exocytosis細胞內鈣離子的增加觸發(fā)胰島素通過胞吐作用分泌到細胞外第60頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一There are two phases of insulin release in response to a rise in glucose. The first is an immediate release of insulin. This is attributabl
40、e to the release of preformed insulin, which is stored in secretory granules. After a short delay, there is a second, more prolonged release of newly synthesized insulin.胰島素對葡萄糖反應的的釋放有兩個階段第一階段:立即釋放儲存在分泌顆粒中的胰島素第二階段:釋放新合成的胰島素,持續(xù)時間較長第61頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Glucose 1GLUT2ATPMETABOLISM2Ca2+ IMMED
41、IATE SECRETIONCalmodulin INSULIN BIOSYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING5 Protein kinase CCa2+3CaM-kinase4DAGSecreted insulin + C-peptideControl of insulin synthesis and secretion by glucose. CaM kinase: calmodulin-dependent protein kinase; DAG: diacylglycerol6第62頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulinase found in
42、 the liver and kidneys breaks down insulin circulating in the plasmaInsulin has a half-life of only about 6 minutes.胰島素在肝臟和腎臟降解。肝臟和腎臟的胰島素酶分解血漿中的胰島素胰島素的半衰期約6分鐘 第63頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin Receptor(胰島素受體)第64頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一the receptor for insulin is embedded in the plasma mem
43、brane and is composed of a pair of alpha subunits and a pair of beta subunits。胰島素受體是跨膜受體,由兩個亞基和兩個亞基組成。Two and two subunits Receptor tyrosine kinaseHormone binding site on subunit, subunit - tyrosine kinase activity Localized to 19th chromosome inHumans第65頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一The insulin rece
44、ptor. Insulin binding to the -chains transmits a signal through the transmembrane domain of the -chains to activate the tyrosine kinase activity CYTOPLASMEXTRACELLULARNH3+SSSSInsulin-OOC-S-S-+3HNCOO-subunits-subunitsTransmembranedomainTyrosinekinasedomain+3HNNH3+-OOCCOO- PlasmamembraneSSSS第66頁,共99頁,
45、2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一ExtracellularCytoplasm1insulinbindsLR2IRTK (L)activatedOPOP3IRTK (R)phosphorylated/activatedActivation of the tyrosine kinase domains of the insulin receptor by insulin binding, followed by interchain autophosphorylation PPPPATPsADPsPhosphorylationcatalyzed by IRTK (L)P第67頁,共99
46、頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一ExtracellularCytoplasm1insulinbindsLR2IRTK (L)activatedOPOP3IRTK (R)phosphorylated/activatedPOPO4IRTK (L)phosphorylatedOPOPPPPPATPsADPsPhosphorylationcatalyzed by IRTK (L)ATPsADPsPPPhosphorylationcatalyzed by IRTK (R)Activation of the tyrosine kinase domains of the insulin re
47、ceptor by insulin binding, followed by interchain autophosphorylation 第68頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin Signal Transductionseveral targets are phosphorylated by IRTKIRS activation is tied to metabolic responses glucose transport (muscle and fat cells) activation of protein phosphataseprotein p
48、hosphatase removes phosphates from proteins phosphorylated by protein kinase A counter-regulation of glucagon第69頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin Action(胰島素的作用) Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose into many tissues that express GLUT4 glucose transporters, such as skeletal muscle and fat. Insul
49、in increases the activity of these transporters and increases their numbers by stimulating their recruitment from an intracellular pool to the cell surface.第70頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一第71頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Extracellular spaceCytoplasm tyr-OHIRS4 signals Golgi to traffic GLUT-4 tomembra
50、nePKBGOLGI= GLUT-4Active IRTKPOPOOPOP1 IRTKcatalyzed tyr-OPIRSATP ADPactiveIRS tyr-OPIRSPI-3Kp852 activated by dockingactive IRSHypothetical mechanism for insulin to mobilize GLUT-4 transporter to the plasma membrane in muscle and adipose tissue. IRS, insulin-receptor substrate; IRTK, insulin recept
51、or tyrosine kinase; PI-3K, phosphatidyl-inositol kinase; PDK; phospholipid-dependent kinasePKB, protein kinase B tyr-OPIRS tyr-OPIRS tyr-OPIRSPIP2PIP3PDK+第72頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin stimulated glucose transport (GLUT-4) in adipose or muscle cells Golgi glucose transporter Step1 - insulin
52、 binding and signal transduction (signal) -P P- Step 2 translocationFrom Golgi Step 3Binding and fusion Step 4Glucosetransport Step 5Receptor inactivationStep 6translocation back to Golgi Glucose第73頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Diagnostic criteria World Health Organization (1980)1. Symptoms of diabet
53、es plus a plasma glucose concentration 11.1 mmol/l obtained at any time of day and without regard to meals, OR2. Fasting plasma glucose 7.8 mmol/l, OR3. A plasma glucose concentration 11.1 mmol/l 2 h after 75 g of oral glucose糖尿病的診斷第74頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Classification Diabetes is classifie
54、d by underlying cause. The categories are: Type 1 diabetesan autoimmune disease in which the bodys own immune system attacks the pancreas, rendering it unable to produce insulin; Type 2 diabetesin which a resistance to the effects of insulin or a defect in insulin secretion may be seen; Gestational
55、diabetes第75頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一第76頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Major defect in individuals with type 2 diabetesReduced biological response to insulinStrong predictor of type 2 diabetesClosely associated with obesityWhat is insulin resistance?第77頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一What is -cell dys
56、function?Major defect in individuals with type 2 diabetesReduced ability of -cells to secrete insulin in response to hyperglycemia第78頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin resistance and -cell dysfunction are core defects of type 2 diabetesInsulinresistanceGenetic susceptibility,obesity, Western lifes
57、tyleType 2 diabetesIRb-celldysfunction第79頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一How do insulin resistance and -cell dysfunction combine to cause type 2 diabetes?Abnormalglucose toleranceHyperinsulinemia,then -cell failureNormal IGT*Type 2 diabetes Post-prandial glucoseInsulin resistanceIncreased insulinresist
58、anceFasting glucoseHyperglycemiaInsulinsecretion*IGT = impaired glucose tolerance第80頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一More than 80% of patients progressing to type 2 diabetes are insulin resistantInsulin resistant;low insulin secretion (54%)Insulin resistant; good insulin secretion (29%)Insulin sensitive
59、;good insulin secretion (1%)Insulin sensitive;low insulin secretion (16%)83%Haffner SM, et al. Circulation 2000; 101:975980.第81頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一Insulin resistance reduced response to circulating insulinInsulinresistance Glucose output Glucose uptake Glucose uptakeHyperglycemiaLiverMuscle
60、AdiposetissueIR第82頁,共99頁,2022年,5月20日,18點46分,星期一In USA:16 million people suffer from DM. Type 1 diabetes accounts for 5-10% of cases, affecting 1 of 400 children and adolescents. Type 2 diabetes is extremely common, accounting for 90-95% of all cases of diabetes. This form of diabetes can go undiagno
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